The Travels of Marco Polo Volume 1 - Marco Polo and Rustichello of Pisa
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There are in this country Eremites (after the fashion of those parts), who
dwell in seclusion and practise great abstinence in eating and drinking.
They observe strict chastity, and keep from all sins forbidden in their
law, so that they are regarded by their own folk as very holy persons.
They live to a very great age.[NOTE 5]
There are also a number of idolatrous abbeys and monasteries. [The people
of the province do not kill animals nor spill blood; so if they want to
eat meat they get the Saracens who dwell among them to play the
butcher.[NOTE 6]] The coral which is carried from our parts of the world
has a better sale there than in any other country.[NOTE 7]
[Illustration: Ancient Buddhist Temple at Pandrethan in Kashmir]
Now we will quit this country, and not go any further in the same
direction; for if we did so we should enter India; and that I do not wish
to do at present. For, on our return journey, I mean to tell you about
India: all in regular order. Let us go back therefore to Badashan, for we
cannot otherwise proceed on our journey.
NOTE 1.--I apprehend that in this chapter Marco represents Buddhism (which
is to be understood by his expression _Idolatry_, not always, but usually)
as in a position of greater life and prosperity than we can believe it to
have enjoyed in Kashmir at the end of the 13th century, and I suppose that
his knowledge of it was derived in great part from tales of the Mongol and
Tibetan Buddhists about its past glories.
I know not if the spelling _Kesciemur_ represents any peculiar Mongol
pronunciation of the name. Plano Carpini, probably the first modern
European to mention this celebrated region, calls it _Casmir_ (p. 708).
"The Cashmeerians," says Abu'l Fazl, "have a language of their own, but
their books are written in the Shanskrit tongue, although the character is
sometimes Cashmeerian. They write chiefly upon _Tooz_ [birch-bark], which
is the bark of a tree; it easily divides into leaves, and remains perfect
for many years." (_Ayeen Akbery_, II. 147.) A sketch of Kashmiri Grammar
by Mr. Edgeworth will be found in vol. x. of the _J. A. S. B._, and a
fuller one by Major Leech in vol. xiii. Other contributions on the
language are in vol. xxxv. pt. i. p. 233 (Godwin-Austen); in vol. xxxix.
pt. i. p. 95 (Dr. Elmslie); and in _Proceedings_ for 1866, p. 62, seqq.
(Sir G. Campbell and Babu Rajendra Lal Mitra). The language, though in
large measure of Sanskrit origin, has words and forms that cannot be
traced in any other Indian vernacular. (_Campbell_, pp. 67, 68). The
character is a modification of the Panjab Nagari.
NOTE 2.--The Kashmirian conjurers had made a great impression on Marco,
who had seen them at the Court of the Great Kaan, and he recurs in a later
chapter to their weather sorceries and other enchantments, when we shall
make some remarks. Meanwhile let us cite a passage from Bernier, already
quoted by M. Pauthier. When crossing the Pir Panjal (the mountain crossed
on entering Kashmir from Lahore) with the camp of Aurangzib, he met with
"an old Hermit who had dwelt upon the summit of the Pass since the days of
Jehangir, and whose religion nobody knew, although it was said that he
could work miracles, and used at his pleasure to produce extraordinary
thunderstorms, as well as hail, snow, rain, and wind. There was something
wild in his countenance, and in his long, spreading, and tangled hoary
beard. He asked alms fiercely, allowing the travellers to drink from
earthen cups that he had set out upon a great stone, but signing to them
to go quickly by without stopping. He scolded those who made a noise,
'for,' said he to me (after I had entered his cave and smoothed him down
with a half rupee which I put in his hand with all humility), 'noise here
raises furious storms. Aurangzib has done well in taking my advice and
prohibiting it. Shah Jehan always did the like. But Jehangir once chose to
laugh at what I said, and made his drums and trumpets sound; the
consequence was he nearly lost his life.'" (_Bernier_, Amst. ed. 1699, II.
290.) A successor of this hermit was found on the same spot by P. Desideri
in 1713, and another by Vigne in 1837.
NOTE 3.--Though the earliest entrance of Buddhism into Tibet was from
India Proper, yet Kashmir twice in the history of Tibetan Buddhism played
a most important part. It was in Kashmir that was gathered, under the
patronage of the great King Kanishka, soon after our era, the Fourth
Buddhistic Council, which marks the point of separation between Northern
and Southern Buddhism. Numerous missionaries went forth from Kashmir to
spread the doctrine in Tibet and in Central Asia. Many of the Pandits who
laboured at the translation of the sacred books into Tibetan were
Kashmiris, and it was even in Kashmir that several of the translations
were made. But these were not the only circumstances that made Kashmir a
holy land to the Northern Buddhists. In the end of the 9th century the
religion was extirpated in Tibet by the Julian of the Lamas, the great
persecutor Langdarma, and when it was restored, a century later, it was
from Kashmir in particular that fresh missionaries were procured to
reinstruct the people in the forgotten Law. (See _Koeppen_, II. 12-13, 78;
_J. As._ ser. VI. tom. vi. 540.)
"The spread of Buddhism to Kashmir is an event of extraordinary importance
in the history of that religion. Thenceforward that country became a
mistress in the Buddhist Doctrine and the headquarters of a particular
school.... The influence of Kashmir was very marked, especially in the
spread of Buddhism beyond India. From Kashmir it penetrated to Kandahar
and Kabul,... and thence over Bactria. Tibetan Buddhism also had its
essential origin from Kashmir;... so great is the importance of this
region in the History of Buddhism." (_Vassilyev, Der Buddhismus_, I. 44.)
In the account which the Mahawanso gives of the consecration of the great
Tope at Ruanwelli, by Dutthagamini, King of Ceylon (B.C. 157), 280,000
priests (!) come from Kashmir, a far greater number than is assigned to
any other country except one. (_J. A. S. B._ VII. 165.)
It is thus very intelligible how Marco learned from the Mongols and the
Lamas with whom he came in contact to regard Kashmir as "the very original
source from which their Religion had spread abroad." The feeling with
which they looked to Kashmir must have been nearly the same as that with
which the Buddhists of Burma look to Ceylon. But this feeling towards
Kashmir does not _now_, I am informed, exist in Tibet. The reverence for
the holy places has reverted to Bahar and the neighbouring "cradle-lands"
of Buddhism.
It is notable that the historian Firishta, in a passage quoted by Tod,
uses Marco's expression in reference to Kashmir, almost precisely, saying
that the Hindoos derived their idolatry from Kashmir, "the foundry of
magical superstition." (_Rajasthan_, I. 219.)
NOTE 4.--The people of Kashmir retain their beauty, but they are morally
one of the most degraded races in Asia. Long oppression, now under the
Lords of Jamu as great as ever, has no doubt aggravated this. Yet it would
seem that twelve hundred years ago the evil elements were there as well as
the beauty. The Chinese traveller says: "Their manners are light and
volatile, their characters effeminate and pusillanimous.... They are very
handsome, but their natural bent is to fraud and trickery." (_Pel. Boud._
II. 167-168.) Vigne's account is nearly the same. (II. 142-143.) "They are
as mischievous as monkeys, and far more malicious," says Mr. Shaw (p.
292).
[Bernier says: "The women [of Kachemire] especially are very handsome; and
it is from this country that nearly every individual, when first admitted
to the court of the Great Mogul, selects wives or concubines, that his
children may be whiter than the Indians, and pass for genuine Moguls.
Unquestionably, there must be beautiful women among the higher classes, if
we may judge by those of the lower orders seen in the streets and in the
shops." (_Travels in the Mogul Empire_, edited by Archibald Constable,
1891, p. 404.)]
NOTE 5.--In the time of Hiuen Tsang, who spent two years studying in
Kashmir in the first half of the 7th century, though there were many
Brahmans in the country, Buddhism was in a flourishing state; there were
100 convents with about 5000 monks. In the end of the 11th century a King
(Harshadeva, 1090-1102) is mentioned _exceptionally_ as a protector of
Buddhism. The supposition has been intimated above that Marco's picture
refers to a traditional state of things, but I must notice that a like
picture is presented in the Chinese account of Hulaku's war. One of the
thirty kingdoms subdued by the Mongols was "The kingdom of Fo (Buddha)
called _Kishimi_. It lies to the N.W. of India. There are to be seen the
men who are counted the successors of Shakia; their ancient and venerable
air recalls the countenance of Bodi-dharma as one sees it in pictures.
They abstain from wine, and content themselves with a gill of rice for
their daily food, and are occupied only in reciting the prayers and
litanies of Fo." (_Rem. N. Mel. Asiat._ I. 179.) Abu'l Fazl says that on
his third visit with Akbar to Kashmir he discovered some old men of the
religion of Buddha, but none of them were _literati_. The _Rishis_, of
whom he speaks with high commendation as abstaining from meat and from
female society, as charitable and unfettered by traditions, were perhaps a
modified remnant of the Buddhist Eremites. Colonel Newall, in a paper on
the Rishis of Kashmir, traces them to a number of Shiah Sayads, who fled
to Kashmir in the time of Timur. But evidently the _genus_ was of much
earlier date, long preceding the introduction of Islam. (_Vie et V. de H.
T._ p. 390; _Lassen_, III. 709; _Ayeen Akb._ II. 147, III. 151; _J. A. S.
B._ XXXIX. pt. i. 265.)
We see from the _Dabistan_ that in the 17th century Kashmir continued to
be a great resort of Magian mystics and sages of various sects, professing
great abstinence and credited with preternatural powers. And indeed
Vambery tells us that even in our own day the Kashmiri Dervishes are
pre-eminent among their Mahomedan brethren for cunning, secret arts, skill
in exorcisms, etc. (_Dab._ I. 113 seqq. II. 147-148; _Vamb. Sk. of Cent.
Asia_, 9.)
NOTE 6.--The first precept of the Buddhist Decalogue, or Ten Obligations
of the Religious Body, is not to take life. But _animal food_ is not
forbidden, though restricted. Indeed it is one of the circumstances in the
Legendary History of Sakya Muni, which looks as if it _must_ be true, that
he is related to have aggravated his fatal illness by eating a dish of
pork set before him by a hospitable goldsmith. Giorgi says the butchers in
Tibet are looked on as infamous; and people selling sheep or the like will
make a show of exacting an assurance that these are not to be slaughtered.
In Burma, when a British party wanted beef, the owner of the bullocks
would decline to make one over, but would point one out that might be shot
by the foreigners.
In Tibetan history it is told of the persecutor Langdarma that he
compelled members of the highest orders of the clergy to become hunters
and butchers. A Chinese collection of epigrams, dating from the 9th
century, gives a facetious list of _Incongruous Conditions_, among which
we find a poor Parsi, a sick Physician, a fat Bride, a Teacher who does
not know his letters, and a _Butcher who reads the Scriptures_ (of
Buddhism)! (_Alph. Tib._ 445; _Koeppen_, I. 74; _N. and Q., C. and J._
III. 33.)
NOTE 7.--Coral is still a very popular adornment in the Himalayan
countries. The merchant Tavernier says the people to the north of the
Great Mogul's territories and in the mountains of Assam and Tibet were
the greatest purchasers of coral. (_Tr. in India_, Bk. II. ch. xxiii.)
CHAPTER XXXII.
OF THE GREAT RIVER OF BADASHAN.
In leaving Badashan you ride twelve days between east and north-east,
ascending a river that runs through land belonging to a brother of the
Prince of Badashan, and containing a good many towns and villages and
scattered habitations. The people are Mahommetans, and valiant in war.
At the end of those twelve days you come to a province of no great size,
extending indeed no more than three days' journey in any direction, and
this is called VOKHAN. The people worship Mahommet, and they have a
peculiar language. They are gallant soldiers, and they have a chief whom
they call NONE, which is as much as to say _Count_, and they are liegemen
to the Prince of Badashan.[NOTE 1]
There are numbers of wild beasts of all sorts in this region. And when you
leave this little country, and ride three days north-east, always among
mountains, you get to such a height that 'tis said to be the highest place
in the world! And when you have got to this height you find [a great lake
between two mountains, and out of it] a fine river running through a plain
clothed with the finest pasture in the world; insomuch that a lean beast
there will fatten to your heart's content in ten days. There are great
numbers of all kinds of wild beasts; among others, wild sheep of great
size, whose horns are good six palms in length. From these horns the
shepherds make great bowls to eat from, and they use the horns also to
enclose folds for their cattle at night. [Messer Marco was told also that
the wolves were numerous, and killed many of those wild sheep. Hence
quantities of their horns and bones were found, and these were made into
great heaps by the way-side, in order to guide travellers when snow was on
the ground.]
The plain is called PAMIER, and you ride across it for twelve days
together, finding nothing but a desert without habitations or any green
thing, so that travellers are obliged to carry with them whatever they
have need of. The region is so lofty and cold that you do not even see any
birds flying. And I must notice also that because of this great cold, fire
does not burn so brightly, nor give out so much heat as usual, nor does it
cook food so effectually.[NOTE 2]
Now, if we go on with our journey towards the east-north-east, we travel a
good forty days, continually passing over mountains and hills, or through
valleys, and crossing many rivers and tracts of wilderness. And in all
this way you find neither habitation of man, nor any green thing, but must
carry with you whatever you require. The country is called BOLOR. The
people dwell high up in the mountains, and are savage Idolaters, living
only by the chase, and clothing themselves in the skins of beasts. They
are in truth an evil race.[NOTE 3]
NOTE 1.--["The length of Little Pamir, according to Trotter, is 68
miles.... To find the twelve days' ride in the plain of Marco Polo, it
must be admitted, says Severtsof (_Bul. Soc. Geog._ XI. 1890, pp.
588-589), that he went down a considerable distance along the south-north
course of the Aksu, in the Aktash Valley, and did not turn towards Tash
Kurgan, by the Neza Tash Pass, crossed by Gordon and Trotter. The descent
from this pass to Tash Kurgan finishes with a difficult and narrow defile,
which may well be overflowed at the great melting of snow, from the end of
May till the middle of June, even to July.
"Therefore he must have left the Aksu Valley to cross the Pass of
Tagharma, about 50 or 60 kilometres to the north of the Neza Tash Pass;
thence to Kashgar, the distance, in a straight line, is about 200
kilometres, and less than 300 by the shortest route which runs from the
Tagharma Pass to little Kara Kul, and from there down to Yangi Hissar,
along the Ghidjik. And Marco Polo assigns _forty_ days for this route,
while he allows but _thirty_ for the journey of 500 kilometres (at least)
from Jerm to the foot of the Tagharma Pass."
Professor Paquier (_Bul. Soc. Geog._ 6'e Ser. XII. pp. 121-125) remarks
that the Moonshee, sent by Captain Trotter to survey the Oxus between
Ishkashm and Kila Wamar, could not find at the spot marked by Yule on his
map, the mouth of the Shakh-Dara, but northward 7 or 8 miles from the
junction of the Murghab with the Oxus, he saw the opening of an important
water-course, the Suchnan River, formed by the Shakh-Dara and the
Ghund-Dara. Marco arrived at a place between Northern Wakhan and Shihgnan;
from the Central Pamir, Polo would have taken a route identical with that
of the Mirza (1868-1869) by the Chichiklik Pass. Professor Paquier adds: "I
have no hesitation in believing that Marco Polo was in the neighbourhood of
that great commercial road, which by the _Vallis Comedarum_ reached the
foot of the Imaues. He probably did not venture on a journey of fifty
marches in an unknown country. At the top of the Shihgnan Valley, he
doubtless found a road marked out to Little Bukharia. This was the road
followed in ancient times from Bactrian to Serica; and Ptolemy has, so to
speak, given us its landmarks after Marinus of Tyre, by the _Vallis
Comedarum_ (Valley of actual Shihgnan); the _Turris Lapidea_ and the
_Statio Mercatorum_, neighbourhood of Tash Kurgan, capital of the present
province of Sar-i-kol."
I must say that accepting, as I do, for Polo's Itinerary, the route from
Wakhan to Kashgar by the Taghdum-Bash Pamir, and Tash Kurgan, I do not
agree with Professor Paquier's theory. But though I prefer Sir H. Yule's
route from Badakhshan, by the River Vardoj, the Pass of Ishkashm, the
Panja, to Wakhan, I do not accept his views for the Itinerary from Wakhan
to Kashgar; see p. 175.--H. C.]
The river along which Marco travels from Badakhshan is no doubt the upper
stream of the Oxus, known locally as the Panja, along which Wood also
travelled, followed of late by the Mirza and Faiz Bakhsh. It is true that
the river is reached from Badaskhshan Proper by ascending another river
(the Vardoj) and crossing the Pass of Ishkashm, but in the brief style of
our narrative we must expect such condensation.
WAKHAN was restored to geography by Macartney, in the able map which he
compiled for Elphinstone's _Caubul_, and was made known more accurately by
Wood's journey through it. [The district of Wakhan "comprises the valleys
containing the two heads of the Panjah branch of the Oxus, and the valley
of the Panjah itself, from the junction at Zung down to Ishkashim. The
northern branch of the Panjah has its principal source in the Lake
Victoria in the Great Pamir, which as well as the Little Pamir, belongs to
Wakhan, the Aktash River forming the well recognized boundary between
Kashgaria and Wakhan." (Captain Trotter, _Forsyth's Mission_, p. 275.) The
southern branch is the Sarhadd Valley.--H. C.] The lowest part is about
8000 feet above the sea, and the highest _Kishlak_, or village, about
11,500. A few willows and poplars are the only trees that can stand
against the bitter blasts that blow down the valley. Wood estimated the
total population of the province at only 1000 souls, though it might be
capable of supporting 5000.[1] He saw it, however, in the depth of winter.
As to the peculiar language, see note I, ch. xxix. It is said to be a very
old dialect of Persian. A scanty vocabulary was collected by Hayward. (_J.
R. G. S._ XXI. p. 29.) The people, according to Shaw, have Aryan features,
resembling those of the Kashmiris, but harsher.
[Cf. Captain Trotter's _The Oxus below Wakhan, Forsyth's Mission_, p.
276.]
We appear to see in the indications of this paragraph precisely the same
system of government that now prevails in the Oxus valleys. The central
districts of Faizabad and Jerm are under the immediate administration of
the Mir of Badakhshan, whilst fifteen other districts, such as _Kishm,
Rustak, Zebak, Ishkashm, Wakhan_, are dependencies "held by the _relations
of the Mir_, or by hereditary rulers, on a feudal tenure, conditional on
fidelity and military service in time of need, the holders possessing
supreme authority in their respective territories, and paying little or no
tribute to the paramount power." (_Pandit Manphul_.) The first part of the
valley of which Marco speaks as belonging to a brother of the Prince, may
correspond to Ishkashm, or perhaps to Vardoj; the second, Wakhan, seems to
have had a hereditary ruler; but both were vassals of the Prince of
Badakhshan, and therefore are styled _Counts_, not kings or _Seigneurs_.
The native title which Marco gives as the equivalent of Count is
remarkable. _Non_ or _None_, as it is variously written in the texts,
would in French form represent _Nono_ in Italian. Pauthier refers this
title to the "_Rao_-nana (or nano) _Rao_" which figures as the style of
Kanerkes in the Indo-Scythic coinage. But Wilson (_Ariana Antiqua_, p.
358) interprets _Raonano_ as most probably a genitive plural of Rao,
whilst the whole inscription answers precisely to the Greek one [Greek:
BASILEUS BASILEON KANAERKOU] which is found on other coins of the same
prince. General Cunningham, a very competent authority, adheres to this
view, and writes: "I do not think _None_ or _Non_ can have any connection
with the _Nana_ of the coins."
It is remarkable, however, that NONO (said to signify "younger," or
lesser) is in Tibet the title given to a younger brother, deputy, or
subordinate prince. In Cunningham's _Ladak_ (259) we read: "_Nono_ is the
usual term of respect which is used in addressing any young man of the
higher ranks, and when prefixed to _Kahlon_ it means the younger or deputy
minister." And again (p. 352): "_Nono_ is the title given to a younger
brother. Nono Sungnam was the younger brother of Chang Raphtan, the Kahlon
of Bazgo." I have recently encountered the word used independently, and
precisely in Marco's application of it. An old friend, in speaking of a
journey that he had made in our Tibetan provinces, said incidentally that
he had accompanied the commissioner _to the installation of a new_ NONO (I
think in Spiti). The term here corresponds so precisely with the
explanation which Marco gives of _None_ as a Count subject to a superior
sovereign, that it is difficult to regard the coincidence as accidental.
The _Yuechi_ or Indo-Scyths who long ruled the Oxus countries are said to
have been of Tibetan origin, and Al-Biruni repeats a report that this was
so. (_Elliot._ II. 9.)[2] Can this title have been a trace of their rule?
Or is it Indian?
NOTE 2.--This chapter is one of the most interesting in the book, and
contains one of its most splendid anticipations of modern exploration,
whilst conversely Lieutenant John Wood's narrative presents the most
brilliant confirmation in detail of Marco's narrative.
We have very old testimony to the recognition of the great altitude of the
Plateau of PAMIR (the name which Marco gives it and which it still
retains), and to the existence of the lake (or lakes) upon its surface.
The Chinese pilgrims Hwui Seng and Sung Yun, who passed this way A.D. 518,
inform us that these high lands of the Tsung Ling were commonly said to be
midway between heaven and earth. The more celebrated Hiuen Tsang, who came
this way nearly 120 years later (about 644) on his return to China, "after
crossing the mountains for 700 _li_, arrived at the valley of _Pomilo_
(Pamir). This valley is 1000 _li_ (about 200 miles) from east to west, and
100 _li_ (20 miles) from north to south, and lies between two snowy ranges
in the centre of the Tsung Ling mountains. The traveller is annoyed by
sudden gusts of wind, and the snow-drifts never cease, spring or summer.
As the soil is almost constantly frozen, you see but a few miserable
plants, and no crops can live. The whole tract is but a dreary waste,
without a trace of human kind. In the middle of the valley is a great lake
300 _li_ (60 miles) from east to west, and 500 _li_ from north to south.
This stands in the centre of Jambudwipa (the Buddhist [Greek: oikoumenae])
on a plateau of prodigious elevation. An endless variety of creatures
peoples its waters. When you hear the murmur and clash of its waves you
think you are listening to the noisy hum of a great market in which vast
crowds of people are mingling in excitement.... The lake discharges to the
west, and a river runs out of it in that direction and joins the _Potsu_
(Oxus).... The lake likewise discharges to the east, and a great river
runs out, which flows eastward to the western frontier of _Kiesha_
(Kashgar), where it joins the River Sita, and runs eastward with it into
the sea." The story of an eastern outflow from the lake is, no doubt,
legend, connected with an ancient Hindu belief (see _Cathay_, p. 347), but
Burnes in modern times heard much the same story. And the Mirza, in 1868,
took up the same impression regarding the smaller lake called Pamir Kul,
in which the southern branch of the Panja originates.
"After quitting the (frozen) surface of the river," says Wood, "we ...
ascended a low hill, which apparently bounded the valley to the eastward.
On surmounting this, at 3 P.M. of the 19th February, 1838, we stood, to
use a native expression, upon the _Bam-i-Duniah_, or 'Roof of the World,'
while before us lay stretched a noble but frozen sheet of water, from
whose western end issued the infant river of the Oxus. This fine lake
(Sirikol) lies in the form of a crescent, about 14 miles long from east to
west, by an average breadth of 1 mile. On three sides it is bordered by
swelling hills about 500 feet high, while along its southern bank they
rise into mountains 3500 feet above the lake, or 19,000 feet above the
sea, and covered with perpetual snow, from which never-failing source the
lake is supplied.... Its elevation, measured by the temperature of boiling
water, is 15,600 feet."
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