The Travels of Marco Polo Volume 1 - Marco Polo and Rustichello of Pisa
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The Archimandrite Palladius adds in a footnote: "Our well-known Mongolist
N. Golovkin has told us, that according to a story actually current among
the Mongols, the tombs of the former Mongol Khans are situated near
Tasola Hill, equally in the vicinity of the Kerulen. He states also that
even now the Mongols are accustomed to assemble on that hill on the seventh
day of the seventh moon (according to an ancient custom), in order to adore
Chingiz Khan's tomb. Altan tobchi (translated into Russian by Galsan
Gomboeff), in relating the history of the Mongols after their expulsion
from China, and speaking of the Khans' tombs, calls them _Naiman tzagan
gher_, i.e. 'Eight White Tents' (according to the number of chambers for
the souls of the chief deceased Khans in Peking), and sometimes simply
_Tzagan gher_, 'the White Tent,' which, according to the translator's
explanation, denotes only Chingiz Khan's tomb."
"According to the Chinese Annals (_T'ung kien kang mu_), quoted by Dr. E.
Bretschneider (_Med. Res._ I. p. 157), Chinghiz died near the _Liu p'an
shan_ in 1227, after having subdued the Tangut empire. On modern Chinese
maps _Liu p'an shan_ is marked south of the city of _Ku yuean chou_,
department of _P'ing liang_, in _Kan suh_. The _Yuean shi_ however, implies
that he died in Northern Mongolia. We read there, in the annals, _s.a._
1227, that in the fifth intercalary month the Emperor moved to the
mountain _Liu p'an shan_ in order to avoid the heat of the summer. In the
sixth month the empire of the _Hia_ (Tangut) submitted. Chinghiz rested on
the river _Si Kiang_ in the district of _Ts'ing shui_ (in Kansuh; it has
still the same name). In autumn, in the seventh month (August), on the day
_jen wu_, the Emperor fell ill, and eight days later died in his palace
_Ha-lao-t'u_ on the River _Sa-li_. This river Sali is repeatedly mentioned
in the _Yuean shi_, viz. in the first chapter, in connection with the first
military doings of Chinghiz. Rashid reports (_D'Ohsson_, I. 58) that
Chinghiz in 1199 retired to his residence _Sari Kihar_. The _Yuean chao pi
shi_ (Palladius' transl., 81) writes the same name _Saari Keher_ (_Keher_
in modern Mongol means 'a plain'). On the ancient map of Mongolia found in
the _Yuean shi lei pien_, _Sa-li K'ie-rh_ is marked south of the river
_Wa-nan_ (the _Onon_ of our maps), and close to _Sa-li K'ie-rh_ we read:
'Here was the original abode of the Yuean' (Mongols). Thus it seems the
passage in the Yuean history translated above intimates that Chinghiz died
in Mongolia, and not near the _Liu p'an shan_, as is generally believed.
The _Yuean ch'ao pi shi_ (Palladius' transl., 152) and the _'Ts'in cheng lu_
(Palladius' transl., 195) both agree in stating that, after subduing the
Tangut empire, Chinghiz returned home, and then died. Colonel Yule, in his
_Marco Polo_ (I. 245), states 'that Rashid calls the place of Chinghiz'
death _Leung shan_, which appears to be the mountain range still so-called
in the heart of Shensi.' I am not aware from what translation of Rashid,
Yule's statement is derived, but d'Ohsson (I. 375, note) seems to quote the
same passage in translating from Rashid: '_Liu-p'an-shan_ was situated on
the frontiers of the _Churche_ (empire of the _Kin_), _Nangias_ (empire of
the _Sung_) and _Tangut_;' which statement is quite correct."
We now come to the Mongol tradition, which places the tomb of Chinghiz in
the country of the Ordos, in the great bend of the Yellow River.
Two Belgian missionaries, MM. de Vos and Verlinden, who visited the tomb
of Chinghiz Khan, say that before the Mahomedan invasion, on a hill a few
feet high, there were two courtyards, one in front of the other,
surrounded by palisades. In the second courtyard, there were a building
like a Chinese dwelling-house and six tents. In a double tent are kept the
remains of the _bokta_ (the Holy). The neighbouring tents contained
various precious objects, such as a gold saddle, dishes, drinking-cups, a
tripod, a kettle, and many other utensils, all in solid silver. (_Missions
Catholiques_, No. 315, 18th June, 1875.)--This periodical gives (p. 293) a
sketch of the tomb of the Conqueror, according to the account of the two
missionaries.
Prjevalsky (_Mongolia and Tangut_) relates the story of the _Khatun Gol_
(see supra, p. 245), and says that her tomb is situated at 11 versts
north-east of lake of Dzaidemin Nor, and is called by the Mongols
Tumir-Alku, and by the Chinese Djiou-Djin Fu; one of the legends mentioned
by the Russian traveller gives the Ordo country as the burial-place of
Chinghiz, 200 versts south of lake Dabasun Nor; the remains are kept in two
coffins, one of wood, the other of silver; the Khan prophesied that after
eight or ten centuries he would come to life again and fight the Emperor of
China, and being victorious, would take the Mongols from the Ordos back to
their country of Khalka; Prjevalsky did not see the tomb, nor did Potanin.
"Their holiest place [of the Mongols of Ordos] is a collection of felt
tents called 'Edjen-joro,' reputed to contain the bones of Jenghiz Khan.
These sacred relics are entrusted to the care of a caste of Darhats,
numbering some fifty families. Every summer, on the twenty-first day of
the sixth moon, sacrifices are offered up in his honour, when numbers of
people congregate to join in the celebration, such gatherings being called
_tailgan_." On the southern border of the Ordos are the ruins of
Boro-balgasun [Grey town], said to date from Jenghiz Khan's time.
(_Potanin_, _Proc. R. G. S._ IX. 1887, p. 233.)
The last traveller who visited the tomb of Chinghiz is M. C. E. Bonin, in
July 1896; he was then on the banks of the Yellow River in the northern
part of the Ordo country, which is exclusively inhabited by nomadic and
pastoral Mongols, forming seven tribes or hords, Djungar, Talat, Wan,
Ottok, Djassak, Wushun and Hangkin, among which are eastward the Djungar
and in the centre the Wan; according to their own tradition, these tribes
descend from the seven armies encamped in the country at the time of
Chinghiz's death; the King of Djungar was 67 years of age, and was the
chief of all the tribes, being considered the 37th descendant of the
conqueror in a direct line. His predecessor was the Wushun Wang. M. Bonin
gives (_Revue de Paris_, 15th February 1898) the following description of
the tomb and of the country surrounding it. Between the _yamen_ (palace)
of the King (Wang) of Djungar and the tomb of Chinghiz-Khan, there are
five or six marches made difficult by the sands of the Gobi, but horses
and camels may be used for the journey. The road, southward through the
desert, passes near the great lama-monastery called _Barong-tsao_ or
_Si-tsao_ (Monastery of the West), and in Chinese _San-t'ang sse_ (Three
Temples). This celebrated monastery was built by the King of Djungar to
hold the tablets of his ancestors--on the ruins of an old temple, said to
have been erected by Chinghiz himself. More than a thousand lamas are
registered there, forty of them live at the expense of the Emperor of
China. Crossing afterwards the two upper branches of the Ulan Muren (Red
River) on the banks of which Chinghiz was murdered, according to local
tradition, close to the lake of Chahan Nor (White Lake), near which are
the tents of the Prince of Wan, one arrives at last at the spot called
_Yeke-Etjen-Koro_, in Mongol: the abode of the Great Lord, where the tomb
is to be found. It is erected to the south-east of the village, comprising
some twenty tents or tent-like huts built of earth. Two large white felt
tents, placed side by side, similar to the tents of the modern Mongols,
but much larger, cover the tomb; a red curtain, when drawn, discloses the
large and low silver coffin, which contains the ashes of the Emperor,
placed on the ground of the second tent; it is shaped like a big trunk,
with great rosaces engraved upon it. The Emperor, according to local
tradition, was cremated on the bank of the Ulan Muren, where he is
supposed to have been slain. On the twenty-first day of the third moon the
anniversary fete of Mongolia takes place; on this day of the year only are
the two mortuary tents opened, and the coffin is exhibited to be venerated
by people coming from all parts of Mongolia. Many other relics, dispersed
all over the Ordo land, are brought thither on this occasion; these relics
called in Mongol _Chinghiz Bogdo_ (Sacred remains of Chinghiz) number ten;
they are in the order adopted by the Mongols: the saddle of Chinghiz,
hidden in the Wan territory; the bow, kept at a place named Hu-ki-ta-lao
Hei, near Yeke Etjen-Koro; the remains of his war-horse, called
Antegan-tsegun (more), preserved at Kebere in the Djungar territory; a
fire-arm kept in the palace of the King of Djungar; a wooden and leather
vase called Pao-lao-antri, kept at the place Shien-ni-chente; a wax figure
containing the ashes of the Khan's equerry, called Altaqua-tosu, kept at
Ottok (one of the seven tribes); the remains of the second wife, who lay at
Kiasa, on the banks of the Yellow River, at a place called on Prjevalsky's
map in Chinese Djiou-Djin-fu, and in Mongol Tumir-Alku; the tomb of the
third wife of Chinghiz, who killed him, and lay to-day at Bagha-Ejen-Koro,
"the abode of the little Sovereign," at a day's march to the south of the
Djungar King's palace; the very tomb of Yeke-Etjen-Koro, which is supposed
to contain also the ashes of the first wife of the Khan; and last, his
great standard, a black wood spear planted in the desert, more than 150
miles to the south of the tomb; the iron of it never gets rusty; no one
dares touch it, and therefore it is not carried to Yeke-Etjen-Koro with the
other relics for the yearly festival. (See also _Rockhill, Diary_, p. 29.)
--H. C.]
NOTE 4.--Rashiduddin relates that the escort, in carrying Chinghiz to his
burial, slew all whom they met, and that forty noble and beautiful girls
were despatched to serve him in the other world, as well as superb horses.
As Mangku Kaan died in the heart of China, any attempt to carry out the
barbarous rule in his case would involve great slaughter. (_Erd._ 443;
_D'Ohsson_, I. 381, II. 13; and see _Cathay_, 507-508.)
Sanang Setzen ignores these barbarities. He describes the body of Chinghiz
as removed to his native land on a two-wheeled waggon, the whole host
escorting it, and wailing as they went: "And Kiluken Bahadur of the Sunid
Tribe (one of the Khan's old comrades) lifted up his voice and sang--
'Whilom Thou didst swoop like a Falcon: A rumbling waggon now
trundles thee off:
O My King!
Hast thou in truth then forsaken thy wife and thy children
and the Diet of thy People?
O My King!
Circling in pride like an Eagle whilom Thou didst lead us,
O My King!
But now Thou hast stumbled and fallen, like an unbroken Colt,
O My King!'" (p. 108.)
["The burying of living men with the dead was a general custom with the
tribes of Eastern Asia. Favourite servants and wives were usually buried
in this way. In China, the chief wives and those concubines who had
already borne children, were exempted from this lot. The Tunguz and other
tribes were accustomed to kill the selected victims by strangulation. In
China they used to be buried alive; but the custom of burying living men
ceased in A.D. 1464. [_Hwang ming ts'ung sin lu_.] In the time of the
present Manchu Dynasty, the burying of living men was prohibited by the
Emperor Kang-hi, at the close of the 17th century, i.e. the forced
burying; but voluntary sepulture remained in force [_Yu chi wen_].
Notwithstanding this prohibition, cases of forced burying occurred again
in remote parts of Manchuria; when a concubine refused to follow her
deceased master, she was forcibly strangled with a bow-string [_Ninguta
chi_]. I must observe, however, that there is no mention made in
historical documents of the existence of this custom with the Mongols; it
is only an hypothesis based on the analogy between the religious ideas and
customs of the Mongols and those of other tribes." (_Palladius_, p. 13.)
In his _Religious System of China_, II., Dr. J. J. M. de Groot devotes a
whole chapter (ix. 721 seqq.), _Concerning the Sacrifice of Human Beings
at Burials, and Usages connected therewith_. The oldest case on record in
China dates as far back as B.C. 677, when sixty-six men were killed after
the ruler Wu of the state of Ts'in died.
The Official Annals of the Tartar Dynasty of Liao, quoted by Professor J.
J. M. de Groot (_Religious System of China_, vol. ii. 698), state that "in
the tenth year of the T'ung hwo period (A.D. 692) the killing of horses
for funeral and burial rites was interdicted, as also the putting into the
tombs of coats of mail, helmets, and articles and trinkets of gold and
silver." Professor de Groot writes (l.c. 709): "But, just as the placing
of victuals in the graves was at an early date changed into sacrifices of
food outside the graves, so burying horses with the dead was also modified
under the Han Dynasty into presenting them to the dead without interring
them, and valueless counterfeits were on such occasions substituted for
the real animals."--H. C.]
CHAPTER LII.
CONCERNING THE CUSTOMS OF THE TARTARS.
Now that we have begun to speak of the Tartars, I have plenty to tell you
on that subject. The Tartar custom is to spend the winter in warm plains,
where they find good pasture for their cattle, whilst in summer they
betake themselves to a cool climate among the mountains and valleys, where
water is to be found as well as woods and pastures.
Their houses are circular, and are made of wands covered with felts.[NOTE
1] These are carried along with them whithersoever they go; for the wands
are so strongly bound together, and likewise so well combined, that the
frame can be made very light. Whenever they erect these huts the door is
always to the south. They also have waggons covered with black felt so
efficaciously that no rain can get in. These are drawn by oxen and camels,
and the women and children travel in them.[NOTE 2] The women do the buying
and selling, and whatever is necessary to provide for the husband and
household; for the men all lead the life of gentlemen, troubling
themselves about nothing but hunting and hawking, and looking after their
goshawks and falcons, unless it be the practice of warlike exercises.
They live on the milk and meat which their herds supply, and on the
produce of the chase; and they eat all kinds of flesh, including that of
horses and dogs, and Pharaoh's rats, of which last there are great numbers
in burrows on those plains.[NOTE 3] Their drink is mare's milk.
They are very careful not to meddle with each other's wives, and will not
do so on any account, holding that to be an evil and abominable thing. The
women too are very good and loyal to their husbands, and notable
housewives withal.[NOTE 4] [Ten or twenty of them will dwell together in
charming peace and unity, nor shall you ever hear an ill word among them.]
The marriage customs of Tartars are as follows. Any man may take a hundred
wives an he so please, and if he be able to keep them. But the first wife
is ever held most in honour, and as the most legitimate [and the same
applies to the sons whom she may bear]. The husband gives a marriage
payment to his wife's mother, and the wife brings nothing to her husband.
They have more children than other people, because they have so many
wives. They may marry their cousins, and if a father dies, his son may
take any of the wives, his own mother always excepted; that is to say the
eldest son may do this, but no other. A man may also take the wife of his
own brother after the latter's death. Their weddings are celebrated with
great ado.[NOTE 5]
NOTE 1.--The word here in the G. T. is "_fennes_," which seems usually to
mean _ropes_, and in fact Pauthier's text reads: "_Il ont mesons de verges
et les cueuvrent de cordes_." Ramusio's text has _feltroni_, and both
Muller and the Latin of the S. G. have _filtro_. This is certainly the
right reading. But whether _fennes_ was ever used as a form of _feltres_
(as _pennes_ means _peltry_) I cannot discover. Perhaps some words have
dropped out. A good description of a Kirghiz hut (35 feet in diameter),
and exactly corresponding to Polo's account, will be found in _Atkinson's
Siberia_, and another in _Vambery's Travels_. How comfortable and
civilised the aspect of such a hut may be, can be seen also in Burnes's
account of a Turkoman dwelling of this kind. This description of hut or
tent is common to nearly all the nomade tribes of Central Asia. The
trellis-work forming the skeleton of the tent-walls is (at least among the
Turkomans) loosely pivoted, so as to draw out and compress like
"lazy-tongs."
[Illustration: Dressing up a tent.]
Rubruquis, Pallas, Timkowski, and others, notice the custom of turning the
door to the south; the reason is obvious. (_Atkinson_, 285; _Vamb._ 316;
_Burnes_, III. 51; _Conolly_, I. 96) But throughout the Altai, Mr. Ney
Elias informs me, K'alkas, Kirghiz, and Kalmaks all pitch their tents
facing _east_. The prevailing winter wind is there _westerly_.
[Mr. Rockhill (_Rubruck_, p. 56, note) says that he has often seen Mongol
tents facing east and south-east. He adds: "It is interesting to find it
noted in the _Chou Shu_ (Bk. 50, 3) that the Khan of the Turks, who lived
always on the Tu-kin mountains, had his tent invariably facing south, so
as to show reverence to the sun's rising place."--H. C.]
NOTE 2.--Aeschylus already knows the
"wandering Scyths who dwell
In latticed huts high-poised on easy wheels."
(_Prom. Vinct._ 709-710.)
And long before him Hesiod says Phineus was carried by the Harpies--
"To the Land of the Milk-fed nations, whose houses are waggons."
(_Strabo_, vii. 3-9.)
Ibn Batuta describes the Tartar waggon in which he travelled to Sarai as
mounted on four great wheels, and drawn by two or more horses:--
"On the waggon is put a sort of pavilion of wands laced together with
narrow thongs. It is very light, and is covered with felt or cloth, and
has latticed windows, so that the person inside can look out without being
seen. He can change his position at pleasure, sleeping or eating, reading
or writing, during the journey." These waggons were sometimes of enormous
size. Rubruquis declares that he measured between the wheel-tracks of one
and found the interval to be 20 feet. The axle was like a ship's mast, and
twenty-two oxen were yoked to the waggon, eleven abreast. (See opposite
cut.) He describes the huts as not usually taken to pieces, but carried
all standing. The waggon just mentioned carried a hut of 30 feet diameter,
for it projected beyond the wheels at least 5 feet on either side. In
fact, Carpini says explicitly, "Some of the huts are speedily taken to
pieces and put up again; such are packed on the beasts. Others cannot be
taken to pieces, but are carried bodily on the waggons. To carry the
smaller tents on a waggon one ox may serve; for the larger ones three oxen
or four, or even more, according to the size." The carts that were used to
transport the Tartar valuables were covered with felt soaked in tallow or
ewe's milk, to make them waterproof. The tilts of these were rectangular,
in the form of a large trunk. The carts used in Kashgar, as described by
Mr. Shaw, seem to resemble these latter. (_I. B._ II. 381-382; _Rub._ 221;
_Carp._ 6, 16.)
The words of Herodotus, speaking generally of the Scyths, apply perfectly
to the Mongol hordes under Chinghiz: "Having neither cities nor forts, and
carrying their dwellings with them wherever they go; accustomed, moreover,
one and all, to shoot from horseback; and living not by husbandry but on
their cattle, their waggons the only houses that they possess, how can
they fail of being unconquerable?" (Bk. IV. ch. 46, p. 41, _Rawlins._)
Scythian prisoners in their waggons are represented on the Column of
Theodosius at Constantinople; but it is difficult to believe that these
waggons, at least as figured in Banduri, have any really Scythian
character.
It is a curious fact that the practice of carrying these _yurts_ or felt
tents upon waggons appears to be entirely obsolete in Mongolia. Mr. Ney
Elias writes: "I frequently showed your picture [that opposite] to
Mongols, Chinese, and Russian border-traders, but none had ever seen
anything of the kind. The only cart I have ever seen used by Mongols is a
little low, light, roughly-made bullock-dray, _certainly_ of Chinese
importation." The old system would, however, appear to have been kept up
to our own times by the Nogai Tartars, near the Sea of Azof. (See note
from Heber, in _Clark's Travels_, 8vo ed. I. 440, and Dr. Clark's vignette
at p. 394 in the same volume.)
[Illustration: Mediaeval Tartar Huts and Waggons.]
NOTE 3.--_Pharaoh's Rat_ was properly the Gerboa of Arabia and North
Africa, which the Arabs also regard as a dainty. There is a kindred animal
in Siberia, called _Alactaga_, and a kind of Kangaroo-rat (probably the
same) is mentioned as very abundant on the Mongolian Steppe. There is also
the _Zieselmaus_ of Pallas, a Dormouse, I believe, which he says the
Kalmaks, even of distinction, count a delicacy, especially cooked in sour
milk. "They eat not only the flesh of all their different kinds of cattle,
including horses and camels, but also that of many wild animals which
other nations eschew, e.g. marmots and _zieselmice_, beavers, badgers,
otters, and lynxes, leaving none untouched except the dog and weasel kind,
and also (unless _very_ hard pressed) the flesh of the fox and the wolf."
(_Pallas, Samml._ I. 128; also _Rubr._ 229-230.)
["In the Mongol biography of Chinghiz Khan (Mongol text of the _Yuan ch'ao
pi shi_), mention is made of two kinds of animals (mice) used for food;
the tarbagat (_Aritomys Bobac_) and _kuchugur_." (_Palladius_, l.c. p.
14.) Regarding the marmots called _Sogur_ by Rubruquis, Mr. Rockhill
writes (p. 69): "Probably the _Mus citillus_, the _Suslik_ of the
Russians.... M. Grenard tells me that _Soghur_, more usually written
_sour_ in Turki, is the ordinary name of the marmot."--H. C.]
NOTE 4.--"Their wives are chaste; nor does one ever hear any talk of their
immodesty," says Carpini;--no Boccaccian and Chaucerian stories.
NOTE 5.--"The Mongols are not prohibited from having a plurality of wives;
the first manages the domestic concerns, and is the most respected."
(_Timk._ II. 310.) Naturally Polygamy is not so general among the Mongols
as when Asia lay at their feet. The Buraets, who seem to retain the old
Mongol customs in great completeness, are polygamists, and have as many
wives as they choose. Polygamy is also very prevalent among the Yakuts,
whose lineage seems to be Eastern Turk. (_Ritter_, III. 125; _Erman_, II.
346.)
Of the custom that entitled the son on succeeding to take such as he
pleased of his deceased father's wives, we have had some illustration (see
_Prologue_, ch. xvii. note 2), and many instances will be found in
Hammer's or other Mongol Histories. The same custom seems to be ascribed
by Herodotus to the Scyths (IV. 78). A number of citations regarding the
practice are given by Quatremere. (_Q. R._ p. 92.) A modern Mongol writer
in the _Melanges Asiatiques_ of the Petersburg Academy, states that the
custom of taking a deceased brother's wives is now obsolete, but that a
proverb preserves its memory (II. 656). It is the custom of some Mahomedan
nations, notably of the Afghans, and is one of those points that have been
cited as a supposed proof of their Hebrew lineage.
"The Kalin is a present which the Bridegroom or his parents make to the
parents of the Bride. All the Pagan nations of Siberia have this custom;
they differ only in what constitutes the present, whether money or
cattle." (_Gmelin_, I. 29; see also _Erman_, II. 348.)
CHAPTER LIII.
CONCERNING THE GOD OF THE TARTARS.
This is the fashion of their religion. [They say there is a Most High God
of Heaven, whom they worship daily with thurible and incense, but they
pray to Him only for health of mind and body. But] they have [also] a
certain [other] god of theirs called NATIGAY, and they say he is the god
of the Earth, who watches over their children, cattle, and crops. They
show him great worship and honour, and every man hath a figure of him in
his house, made of felt and cloth; and they also make in the same manner
images of his wife and children. The wife they put on the left hand, and
the children in front. And when they eat, they take the fat of the meat
and grease the god's mouth withal, as well as the mouths of his wife and
children. Then they take of the broth and sprinkle it before the door of
the house; and that done, they deem that their god and his family have had
their share of the dinner.[NOTE 1]
Their drink is mare's milk, prepared in such a way that you would take
it for white wine; and a right good drink it is, called by them
_Kemiz_.[NOTE 2]
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