The Travels of Marco Polo Volume 1 - Marco Polo and Rustichello of Pisa
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Palladius (19) adds: "_Erigaia_ is not to be confounded with _Urahai_,
often mentioned in the history of Chingis Khan's wars with the Tangut
kingdom. Urahai was a fortress in a pass of the same name in the Alashan
Mountains. Chingis Khan spent five months there (an. 1208), during which
he invaded and plundered the country in the neighbourhood. [_Si hia shu
shi._] The Alashan Mountains form a semicircle 500 _li_ in extent, and
have over forty narrow passes leading to the department of Ning-hia; the
broadest and most practicable of these is now called Ch'i-mu-K'ow; it is
not more than 80 feet broad. [_Ning hia ju chi._] It may be that the
Urahai fortress existed near this pass."
"From Liang-chow fu, M. Polo follows a special route, leaving the modern
postal route on his right; the road he took has, since the time of the
Emperor K'ang-hi, been called the courier's route." (Palladius, 18.)--H.
C.]
NOTE 2.--_Calachan_, the chief town of Egrigaia, is mentioned, according
to Klaproth, by Rashiduddin, among the cities of Tangut, as KALAJAN. The
name and approximate position suggest, as just noticed, identity with
Alashan, the modern capital of which, called by Prjevalsky Dyn-yuan-yin,
stands some distance west of the Hwang-Ho, in about lat. 39 deg.. Polo gives
no data for the interval between this and his next stage.
[The _Dyn-yuan-yin_ of Prjevalsky is the camp of _Ting-yuan-yng_ or Fu-ma-
fu of M. Bonin, the residence of the Si-wang (western prince), of Alashan,
an abbreviation of Alade-shan (_shan_, mountain in Chinese), Alade =
Eleuth or Oeloet; the sister of this prince married a son of Prince Tuan,
the chief of the _Boxers_. (_La Geographie_, 1901. I. 118.) Palladius
(l.c. 19) says: "Under the name of Calachan, Polo probably means the
summer residence of the Tangut kings, which was 60 _li_ from Ning-hia, at
the foot of the Alashan Mountains. It was built by the famous Tangut king
Yuen-hao, on a large scale, in the shape of a castle, in which were high
terraces and magnificent buildings. Traces of these buildings are visible
to this day. There are often found coloured tiles and iron nails 1 foot,
and even 2 feet long. The last Tangut kings made this place their
permanent residence, and led there an indolent and sensual life. The
Chinese name of this residence was Ho-lan shan _Li-Kung_. There is
sufficient reason to suppose that this very residence is named (under the
year 1226) in the Mongol text _Alashai nuntuh_; and in the chronicles of
the Tangut Kingdom, _Halahachar_, otherwise _Halachar_ apparently in the
Tangut language. Thus M. Polo's Calachan can be identified with the
Halachar of the _Si hia shu shi_, and can be taken to designate the
Alashan residence of the Tangut kings."--H. C.]
NOTE 3.--Among the Buraets and Chinese at Kiakhta snow-white camels,
without albino character, are often seen, and probably in other parts of
Mongolia. (See _Erdmann_, II. 261.) Philostratus tells us that the King of
Taxila furnished white camels to Apollonius. I doubt if the present King
of Taxila, whom Anglo-Indians call the Commissioner of Rawal Pindi, could
do the like.
_Cammellotti_ appear to have been fine woollen textures, by no means what
are now called camlets, nor were they necessarily of camel's wool, for
those of Angora goat's wool were much valued. M. Douet d'Arcq calls it "a
fine stuff of wool approaching to our Cashmere, and sometimes of silk."
Indeed, as Mr. Marsh points out, the word is Arabic, and has nothing to do
with _Camel_ in its origin; though it evidently came to be associated
therewith. _Khamlat_ is defined in F. Johnson's Dict.: "Camelot, silk and
camel's hair; also all silk or velvet, especially pily and plushy," and
_Khaml_ is "pile or plush." _Camelin_ was a different and inferior
material. There was till recently a considerable import of different kinds
of woollen goods from this part of China into Ladakh, Kashmir, and the
northern Panjab. [Leaving Ning-hsia, Mr. Rockhill writes (_Diary_, 1892,
44): "We passed on the road a cart with Jardine and Matheson's flag,
coming probably from Chung-Wei Hsien, where camel's wool is sold in
considerable quantities to foreigners. This trade has fallen off very much
in the last three or four years on account of the Chinese middlemen
rolling the wool in the dirt so as to add to its weight, and practising
other tricks on buyers."--H. C.] Among the names of these were _Sling_,
_Shirum_, _Gurun_, and _Khoza_, said to be the names of the towns in China
where the goods were made. We have supposed _Sling_ to be Sining (note 2,
ch. lvii.), but I can make nothing of the others. Cunningham also mentions
"camlets of camel's hair," under the name of _Suklat_, among imports from
the same quarter. The term _Suklat_ is, however, applied in the _Panjab_
trade returns to _broadcloth_. Does not this point to the real nature of
the _siclatoun_ of the Middle Ages? It is, indeed, often spoken of as used
for banners, which implies that it was not a _heavy_ woollen:
"There was mony gonfanoun
Of gold, sendel, and siclatoun."
(_King Alisaundre_, in Weber, I. 85.)
But it was also a material for ladies' robes, for quilts, leggings,
housings, pavilions. Franc. Michel does not decide what it was, only that
it was generally _red_ and wrought with gold. Dozy renders it "silk stuff
brocaded with gold"; but this seems conjectural. Dr. Rock says it was a
thin glossy silken stuff, often with a woof of gold thread, and seems to
derive it from the Arabic sakl, "polishing" (a sword), which is
improbable. Perhaps the name is connected with _Sikiliyat_, "Sicily."
(_Marsh on Wedgwood_, and _on Webster_ in _N. Y. Nation_, 1867; _Douet
D'Arcq_, p. 355; _Punjab Trade Rep._, App. ccxix.-xx.; _Ladak_, 242;
_Fr.-Michel Rech._ I. 221 seqq.; _Dozy_, _Dict. des Vetements_, etc.;
_Dr. Rock's Ken. Catal._ xxxix.-xl.)
CHAPTER LIX.
CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF TENDUC, AND THE DESCENDANTS OF PRESTER JOHN.
Tenduc is a province which lies towards the east, and contains numerous
towns and villages; among which is the chief city, also called TENDUC. The
king of the province is of the lineage of Prester John, George by name,
and he holds the land under the Great Kaan; not that he holds anything
like the whole of what Prester John possessed.[NOTE 1] It is a custom, I
may tell you, that these kings of the lineage of Prester John always
obtain to wife either daughters of the Great Kaan or other princesses of
his family.[NOTE 2]
In this province is found the stone from which Azure is made. It is
obtained from a kind of vein in the earth, and is of very fine
quality.[NOTE 3] There is also a great manufacture of fine camlets of
different colours from camel's hair. The people get their living by their
cattle and tillage, as well as by trade and handicraft.
The rule of the province is in the hands of the Christians, as I have told
you; but there are also plenty of Idolaters and worshippers of Mahommet.
And there is also here a class of people called _Argons_, which is as much
as to say in French _Guasmul_, or, in other words, sprung from two
different races: to wit, of the race of the Idolaters of Tenduc and of
that of the worshippers of Mahommet. They are handsomer men than the other
natives of the country, and having more ability, they come to have
authority; and they are also capital merchants.[NOTE 4]
You must know that it was in this same capital city of Tenduc that Prester
John had the seat of his government when he ruled over the Tartars, and
his heirs still abide there; for, as I have told you, this King George is
of his line, in fact, he is the sixth in descent from Prester John.
Here also is what _we_ call the country of GOG and MAGOG; _they_, however,
call it UNG and MUNGUL, after the names of two races of people that
existed in that Province before the migration of the Tartars. _Ung_ was
the title of the people of the country, and _Mungul_ a name sometimes
applied to the Tartars.[NOTE 5]
And when you have ridden seven days eastward through this province you get
near the provinces of Cathay. You find throughout those seven days'
journey plenty of towns and villages, the inhabitants of which are
Mahommetans, but with a mixture also of Idolaters and Nestorian
Christians. They get their living by trade and manufactures; weaving those
fine cloths of gold which are called _Nasich_ and _Naques_, besides silk
stuffs of many other kinds. For just as we have cloths of wool in our
country, manufactured in a great variety of kinds, so in those regions
they have stuffs of silk and gold in like variety.[NOTE 6]
All this region is subject to the Great Kaan. There is a city you come to
called SINDACHU, where they carry on a great many crafts such as provide
for the equipment of the Emperor's troops. In a mountain of the province
there is a very good silver mine, from which much silver is got: the place
is called YDIFU. The country is well stocked with game, both beast and
bird.[NOTE 7]
Now we will quit that province and go three days' journey forward.
NOTE 1.--Marco's own errors led commentators much astray about Tanduc or
Tenduc, till Klaproth put the matter in its true light.
Our traveller says that Tenduc had been the seat of Aung Khan's
sovereignty; he has already said that it had been the scene of his final
defeat, and he tells us that it was still the residence of his descendants
in their reduced state. To the last piece of information he can speak as a
witness, and he is corroborated by other evidence; but the second
statement we have seen to be almost certainly erroneous; about the first
we cannot speak positively.
Klaproth pointed out the true position of Tenduc in the vicinity of the
great northern bend of the Hwang-Ho, quoting Chinese authorities to show
that _Thiante_ or _Thiante-Kiun_ was the name of a district or group of
towns to the north of that bend, a name which he supposes to be the
original of Polo's _Tenduc_. The general position entirely agrees with
Marco's indications; it lies on his way eastward from Tangut towards
Chagannor, and Shangtu (see ch. lx., lxi.), whilst in a later passage (Bk.
II. ch. lxiv.), he speaks of the Caramoran or Hwang-Ho in its lower
course, as "coming from the lands of Prester John."
M. Pauthier finds severe fault with Klaproth's identification of the
_name_ Tenduc with the Thiante of the Chinese, belonging to a city which
had been destroyed 300 years before, whilst he himself will have that name
to be a corruption of _Tathung_. The latter is still the name of a city
and Fu of northern Shansi, but in Mongol time its circle of administration
extended beyond the Chinese wall, and embraced territory on the left of
the Hwang-Ho, being in fact the first _Lu_, or circle, entered on leaving
Tangut, and therefore, Pauthier urges, the "Kingdom of Tanduc" of our
text.
I find it hard to believe that Marco could get no nearer TATHUNG than in
the form of _Tanduc_ or _Tenduc_. The origin of the last may have been
some Mongol name, not recovered. But it is at least conceivable that a
name based on the old _Thiante-Kiun_ might have been retained among the
Tartars, from whom, and not from the Chinese, Polo took his nomenclature.
Thiante had been, according to Pauthier's own quotations, the _military
post of Tathung_; Klaproth cites a Chinese author of the Mongol era, who
describes the Hwang-Ho as passing through _the territory of the ancient
Chinese city of Thiante_; and Pauthier's own quotation from the Modern
Imperial Geography seems to imply that a place in that territory was
recently known as Fung-chau-_Thiante-Kiun_.
In the absence of preciser indications, it is reasonable to suppose that
the Plain of Tenduc, with its numerous towns and villages, was the
extensive and well-cultivated plain which stretches from the Hwang-Ho,
past the city of Kuku-Khotan, or "Blue Town." This tract abounds in the
remains of cities attributed to the Mongol era. And it is not improbable
that the city of Tenduc was Kuku-Khotan itself, now called by the Chinese
Kwei-hwa Ch'eng, but which was known to them in the Middle Ages as
_Tsing-chau_, and to which we find the Kin Emperor of Northern China
sending an envoy in 1210 to demand tribute from Chinghiz. The city is still
an important mart and a centre of Lamaitic Buddhism, being the residence of
a _Khutukhtu_, or personage combining the characters of cardinal and
voluntarily re-incarnate saint, as well as the site of five great convents
and fifteen smaller ones. Gerbillon notes that Kuku Khotan had been a place
of great trade and population during the Mongol Dynasty.
[The following evidence shows, I think, that we must look for the city of
Tenduc to _Tou Ch'eng_ or _Toto Ch'eng_, called _Togto_ or _Tokto_ by the
Mongols. Mr. Rockhill (_Diary_, 18) passed through this place, and 5 _li_
south of it, reached on the Yellow River, Ho-k'ou (in Chinese) or Dugus or
Dugei (in Mongol). Gerbillon speaks of Toto in his sixth voyage in
Tartary. (_Du Halde_, IV. 345.) Mr. Rockhill adds that he cannot but think
that Yule overlooked the existence of Togto when he identified Kwei-hwa
Ch'eng with Tenduc. Tou Ch'eng is two days' march west of Kwei-hwa Ch'eng,
"On the loess hill behind this place are the ruins of a large camp,
Orch'eng, in all likelihood the site of the old town" (l.c. 18). M. Bonin
(_J. As._ XV. 1900, 589) shares Mr. Rockhill's opinion. From Kwei-hwa
Ch'eng, M. Bonin went by the valley of the Hei Shui River to the Hwang Ho;
at the junction of the two rivers stands the village of Ho-k'au (Ho-k'ou)
south of the small town To Ch'eng, surmounted by the ruins of the old
square Mongol stronghold of Tokto, the walls of which are still in a good
state of preservation.--(_La Geographie_, I. 1901, p. 116.)
On the other hand, it is but fair to state that Palladius (21) says: "The
name of Tenduc obviously corresponds to T'ien-te Kiun, a military post,
the position of which Chinese geographers identify correctly with that of
the modern Kuku-hoton (_Ta tsing y t'ung chi_, ch. on the Tumots of
Kuku-hoton). The T'ien-te Kiun post existed under this name during the
K'itan (Liao) and Kin Dynasties up to Khubilai's time (1267); when under
the name of Fung-chow it was left only a district town in the department of
Ta-t'ung fu. The Kin kept in T'ien-te Kiun a military chief, _Chao-t'ao-
shi_, whose duty it was to keep an eye on the neighbouring tribes, and to
use, if needed, military force against them. The T'ien-te Kiun district was
hardly greater in extent than the modern aimak of Tumot, into which
Kuku-hoton was included since the 16th century, i.e. 370 _li_ from north to
south, and 400 _li_ from east to west; during the Kin it had a settled
population, numbering 22,600 families."
In a footnote, Palladius refers to the geographical parts of the _Liao
shi, Kin shi_, and _Yuen shi_, and adds: "M. Polo's commentators are wrong
in suspecting an anachronism in his statement, or trying to find Tenduc
elsewhere."
We find in the _North-China Herald_ (29th April, 1887, p. 474) the
following note from the _Chinese Times_: "There are records that the
position of this city [Kwei-hwa Ch'eng] was known to the builder of the
Great Wall. From very remote times, it appears to have been a settlement
of nomadic tribes. During the last 1000 years it has been alternately
possessed by the Mongols and Chinese. About A.D. 1573, Emperor Wan-Li
reclaimed it, enclosed a space within walls, and called it Kwei-hwa
Ch'eng."
Potanin left Peking on the 13th May, 1884, for Kuku-khoto (or
Kwei-hwa-Ch'eng), passing over the triple chain of mountains dividing the
Plain of Peking from that on which Kuku-khoto is situate. The southernmost
of these three ridges bears the Chinese name of Wu-tai-shan, "the mountain
of five sacrificial altars," after the group of five peaks, the highest of
which is 10,000 feet above the sea, a height not exceeded by any mountain
in Northern China. At its southern foot lies a valley remarkable for its
Buddhist monasteries and shrines, one of which, "Shing-tung-tze," is
entirely made of brass, whence its name.
"Kuku-Khoto is the depot for the Mongolian trade with China. It contains
two hundred tea-shops, five theatres, fifteen temples, and six Mongol
monasteries. Among its sights are the Buddhist convent of Utassa, with its
five pinnacles and has-reliefs, the convent of Fing-sung-si, and a temple
containing a statue erected in honour of the Chinese general, Pai-jin-
jung, who avenged an insult offered to the Emperor of China." (_Proc. R.
G. S._ IX. 1887, p. 233.)--H. C.]
A passage in Rashiduddin does seem to intimate that the Kerait, the tribe
of Aung Khan, _alias_ Prester John, did occupy territory close to the
borders of Cathay or Northern China; but neither from Chinese nor from
other Oriental sources has any illustration yet been produced of the
existence of Aung Khan's descendants as rulers in this territory under the
Mongol emperors. There is, however, very positive evidence to that effect
supplied by other European travellers, to whom the fables prevalent in the
West had made the supposed traces of Prester John a subject of strong
interest.
Thus John of Monte Corvino, afterwards Archbishop of Cambaluc or Peking,
in his letter of January, 1305, from that city, speaks of Polo's King
George in these terms: "A certain king of this part of the world, by name
George, belonging to the sect of the Nestorian Christians, and of the
illustrious lineage of that great king who was called Prester John of
India, in the first year of my arrival here [circa 1295-1296] attached
himself to me, and, after he had been converted by me to the verity of the
Catholic faith, took the Lesser Orders, and when I celebrated mass used to
attend me wearing his royal robes. Certain others of the Nestorians on
this account accused him of apostacy, but he brought over a great part of
his people with him to the true Catholic faith, and built a church of
royal magnificence in honour of our God, of the Holy Trinity, and of our
Lord, the Pope, giving it the name of _the Roman Church_. This King
George, six years ago, departed to the Lord, a true Christian, leaving as
his heir a son scarcely out of the cradle, and who is now nine years old.
And after King George's death, his brothers, perfidious followers of the
errors of Nestorius, perverted again all those whom he had brought over to
the Church, and carried them back to their original schismatical creed.
And being all alone, and not able to leave His Majesty the Cham, I could
not go to visit the church above-mentioned, which is twenty days' journey
distant.... I had been in treaty with the late King George, if he had
lived, to translate the whole Latin ritual, that it might be sung
throughout the extent of his territory; and whilst he was alive I used to
celebrate mass in his church according to the Latin rite." The distance
mentioned, twenty days' journey from Peking, suits quite well with the
position assigned to Tenduc, and no doubt the Roman Church was in the city
to which Polo gives that name.
Friar Odoric, travelling from Peking towards Shensi, about 1326-1327, also
visits the country of Prester John, and gives to its chief city the name
of _Tozan_, in which perhaps we may trace _Tathung_. He speaks as if the
family still existed in authority.
King George appears again in Marco's own book (Bk. IV. ch. ii.) as one of
Kublai's generals against Kaidu, in a battle fought near Karakorum.
(_Journ. As._ IX. 299 seqq.; _D'Ohsson_, I. 123; _Huc's Tartary_, etc.
I. 55 seqq.; _Koeppen_, II. 381; _Erdmann's Temudschin_; _Gerbillon_ in
_Astley_, IV. 670; _Cathay_, pp. 146 and 199 seqq.)
NOTE 2.--Such a compact is related to have existed reciprocally between
the family of Chinghiz and that of the chief of the Kungurats; but I have
not found it alleged of the Kerait family except by Friar Odoric. We find,
however, many _princesses_ of this family married into that of Chinghiz.
Thus three nieces of Aung Khan became wives respectively of Chinghiz
himself and of his sons Juji and Tului; she who was the wife of the
latter, Serkukteni Bigi, being the mother of Mangu, Hulaku, and Kublai.
Dukuz Khatun, the Christian wife of Hulaku, was a grand-daughter of Aung
Khan.
The name _George_, of Prester John's representative, may have been
actually Jirjis, Yurji, or some such Oriental form of Georgius. But it is
possible that the title was really _Gurgan_, "Son-in-Law," a title of
honour conferred on those who married into the imperial blood, and that
this title may have led to the statements of Marco and Odoric about the
nuptial privileges of the family. Gurgan in this sense was one of the
titles borne by Timur.[1]
[The following note by the Archimandrite Palladius (_Eluc._ 21-23) throws
a great light on the relations between the families of Chinghiz Khan and
of Prester John.
"T'ien-te Kiun was bounded on the north by the _Yn-shan_ Mountains, in and
beyond which was settled the Sha-t'o Tu-K'iu tribe, i.e. Tu-K'iu of the
sandy desert. The K'itans, when they conquered the northern borders of
China, brought also under their rule the dispersed family of these Tu-
K'iu. With the accession of the Kin, a Wang Ku [Ongot] family made its
appearance as the ruling family of those tribes; it issued from those Sha-
t'o Tu-K'iu, who once reigned in the north of China as the How T'ang
Dynasty (923-936 A.D.). It split into two branches, the Wang-Ku of the Yn-
shan, and the Wang-Ku of the Lin-t'ao (west of Kan-su). The Kin removed
the latter branch to Liao-tung (in Manchuria). The Yn-shan Wang-Ku guarded
the northern borders of China belonging to the Kin, and watched their
herds. When the Kin, as a protection against the inroads of the tribes of
the desert, erected a rampart, or new wall, from the boundary of the
Tangut Kingdom down to Manchuria, they intrusted the defence of the
principal places of the Yn-shan portion of the wall to the Wang-Ku, and
transferred there also the Liao-tung Wang-Ku. At the time Chingiz Khan
became powerful, the chief of the Wang-Ku of the Yn-shan was Alahush; and
at the head of the Liao-tung Wang-Ku stood _Pa-sao-ma-ie-li_. Alahush
proved a traitor to the Kin, and passed over to Chinghiz Khan; for this he
was murdered by the malcontents of his family, perhaps by Pa-sao-ma-ie-li,
who remained true to the Kin. Later on, Chingiz Khan married one of his
daughters to the son of Alahush, by name Po-yao-ho, who, however, had no
children by her. He had three sons by a concubine, the eldest of whom,
Kiun-pu-hwa, was married to Kuyuk Khan's daughter. Kiun-pu-hwa's son, Ko-
li-ki-sze, had two wives, both of imperial blood. During a campaign
against Haidu, he was made prisoner in 1298, and murdered. His title and
dignities passed over in A.D. 1310 to his son _Chuan_. Nothing is known of
Alahush's later descendants; they probably became entirely Chinese, like
their relatives of the Liao-tung branch.
"The Wang-Ku princes were thus _de jure_ the sons-in-law of the Mongol
Khans, and they had, moreover, the hereditary title of Kao-t'ang princes
(Kao-t'ang wang); it is very possible that they had their residence in
ancient T'ien-te Kiun (although no mention is made of it in history), just
as at present the Tumot princes reside in Kuku-hoton.
"The consonance of the names of Wang-Khan and Wang-Ku (Ung-Khan and Ongu)
led to the confusion regarding the tribes and persons, which at Marco
Polo's time seems to have been general among the Europeans in China; Marco
Polo and Johannes de Monte Corvino transfer the title of Prester John from
Wang-Khan, already perished at that time, to the distinguished family of
Wang-Ku. Their Georgius is undoubtedly Ko-li-ki-sze, Alahush's
great-grandson. That his name is a Christian one is confirmed by other
testimonies; thus in the Asu (Azes) regiment of the Khan's guards was
Ko-li-ki-sze, _alias_ Kow-r-ki (d. 1311), and his son Ti-mi-ti-r. There is
no doubt that one of them was Georgius, and the other Demetrius. Further,
in the description of _Chin-Kiang_ in the time of the Yuen, mention is made
of Ko-li-ki-sze Ye-li-ko-wen, i.e. Ko-li-ki-sze, the Christian, and of his
son Lu-ho (Luke).
"Ko-li-ki-sze of Wang-ku is much praised in history for his valour and his
love for Confucian doctrine; he had in consequence of a special favour of
the Khan two Mongol princesses for wives at the same time (which is rather
difficult to conciliate with his being a Christian). The time of his death
is correctly indicated in a letter of Joannes de M. Corvino of the year
1305: _ante sex annos migravit ad Dominum_. He left a young son _Chu-an_,
who probably is the Joannes of the letter of Ioannes (Giovani) de M.
Corvino, so called _propter nomen meum_, says the missionary. In another
Wang-ku branch, Si-li-ki-sze reminds one also of the Christian name
_Sergius_."--H. C.]
NOTE 3.--"The _Lapis Armenus_, or Azure,... is produced in the district of
Tayton-fu (i.e. _Tathung_), belonging to Shansi." (_Du Halde_ in _Astley_,
IV. 309; see also _Martini_, p. 36.)
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