The Travels of Marco Polo Volume 1 - Marco Polo and Rustichello of Pisa
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NOTE 4.--This is a highly interesting passage, but difficult, from being
corrupt in the G. Text, and over-curt in Pauthier's MSS. In the former it
runs as follows: "_Hil hi a une jenerasion de jens que sunt appelles_
Argon, _qe vaut a dire en francois_ Guasmul, _ce est a dire qu'il sunt ne
del deus generasions de la lengnee des celz_ Argon Tenduc et des celz
reduc et des celz que aorent Maomet. _Il sunt biaus homes plus que le
autre dou pais et plus sajes et plus mercaant_." Pauthier's text runs
thus: "_Il ont une generation de gens, ces Crestiens qui ont la
Seigneurie, qui s'appellent_ Argon, _qui vaut a dire_ Gasmul; _et sont
plus beaux hommes que les autres mescreans et plus sages. Et pour ce ont
il la seigneurie et sont bons marchans._" And Ramusio: "_Vi e anche una
sorte di gente che si chiamano_ Argon, _per che sono nati di due
generazioni_, cioe da quella di Tenduc che adorano gl' idoli, e da quella
che osservano la legge di Macometto. _E questi sono i piu belli uomini che
si trovino in quel paese e piu savi, e piu accorti nella mercanzia._"
In the first quotation the definition of the _Argon_ as sprung _de la
lengnee_, etc., is not intelligible as it stands, but seems to be a
corruption of the same definition that has been rendered by Ramusio, viz.
that the Argon were half-castes between the race of the Tenduc Buddhists
and that of the Mahomedan settlers. These two texts do not assert that the
Argon were Christians. Pauthier's text at first sight seems to assert
this, and to identify them with the Christian rulers of the province. But
I doubt if it means more than that the Christian _rulers have under them_
a people called Argon, etc. The passage has been read with a bias, owing
to an erroneous interpretation of the word _Argon_ in the teeth of Polo's
explanation of it.
Klaproth, I believe, first suggested that _Argon_ represents the term
_Arkhaiun_, which is found repeatedly applied to Oriental Christians, or
their clergy, in the histories of the Mongol era.[2] No quite satisfactory
explanation has been given of the origin of that term. It is barely
possible that it may be connected with that which Polo uses here; but he
tells us as plainly as possible that he means by the term, not a
Christian, but a _half-breed_.
And in this sense the word is still extant in Tibet, probably also in
Eastern Turkestan, precisely in Marco's form, ARGON. It is applied in
Ladak, as General Cunningham tells us, specifically to the mixt race
produced by the marriages of Kashmirian immigrants with Bot (Tibetan)
women. And it was apparently to an analogous cross between Caucasians and
Turanians that the term was applied in Tenduc. Moorcroft also speaks of
this class in Ladak, calling them _Argands_. Mr. Shaw styles them "a set
of ruffians called _Argoons_, half-bred between Toorkistan fathers and
Ladak mothers.... They possess all the evil qualities of both races,
without any of their virtues." And the author of the Dabistan, speaking of
the Tibetan Lamas, says: "Their king, if his mother be not of royal blood,
is by them called _Arghun_, and not considered their true king." [See p.
291, my reference to _Wellby's Tibet_.--H. C.] Cunningham says the word is
probably Turki, [Arabic], _Arghun_, "Fair," "not _white_," as he writes to
me, "but _ruddy_ or _pink_, and therefore 'fair.' _Arghun_ is both Turki
and Mogholi, and is applied to all fair children, both male and female, as
_Arghun Beg, Arghuna Khatun_," etc.[3] We find an _Arghun_ tribe named in
Timur's Institutes, which probably derived its descent from such
half-breeds. And though the Arghun Dynasty of Kandahar and Sind claimed
their descent and name from Arghun Khan of Persia, this may have had no
other foundation.
There are some curious analogies between these Argons of whom Marco speaks
and those Mahomedans of Northern China and Chinese Turkestan lately
revolted against Chinese authority, who are called _Tungani_, or as the
Russians write it _Dungen_, a word signifying, according to Professor
Vambery, in Turki, "a convert."[4] These Tungani are said by one account
to trace their origin to a large body of Uighurs, who were transferred _to
the vicinity of the Great Wall_ during the rule of the Thang Dynasty (7th
to 10th century). Another tradition derives their origin from Samarkand.
And it is remarkable that Rashiduddin speaks of a town to the west or
north-west of Peking, "most of the inhabitants of which are natives of
Samarkand, and have planted a number of gardens in the Samarkand
style."[5] The former tradition goes on to say that marriages were
encouraged between the Western settlers and the Chinese women. In after
days these people followed the example of their kindred in becoming
Mahomedans, but they still retained the practice of marrying Chinese
wives, though bringing up their children in Islam. The Tungani are stated
to be known in Central Asia for their commercial integrity; and they were
generally selected by the Chinese for police functionaries. They are
passionate and ready to use the knife; but are distinguished from both
Manchus and Chinese by their strength of body and intelligent
countenances. Their special feature is their predilection for mercantile
speculations.
Looking to the many common features of the two accounts--the origin as a
half-breed between Mahomedans of Western extraction and Northern Chinese,
the position in the vicinity of the Great Wall, the superior physique,
intelligence, and special capacity for trade, it seems highly probable
that the Tungani of our day are the descendants of Marco's Argons.
Otherwise we may at least point to these analogies as a notable instance
of like results produced by like circumstances on the same scene; in fact,
of history repeating itself. (See _The Dungens_, by _Mr. H. K. Heins_, in
the _Russian Military Journal_ for August, 1866, and _Western China_, in
the _Ed. Review_ for April, 1868;[6] Cathay, p. 261.)
[Palladius (pp. 23-24) says that "it is impossible to admit that Polo had
meant to designate by this name the Christians, who were called by the
Mongols _Erkeun_ [_Ye li ke un_]. He was well acquainted with the
Christians in China, and of course could not ignore the name under which
they were generally known to such a degree as to see in it a designation
of a cross-race of Mahommetans and heathens." From the _Yuen ch'ao pi shi_
and the _Yuen shi_, Palladius gives some examples which refer to
Mahommedans.
Professor Deveria (_Notes d'Epig._ 49) says that the word [Greek: Archon]
was used by the Mongol Government as a designation for the members of the
Christian clergy at large; the word is used between 1252 and 1315 to speak
of _Christian_ priests by the historians of the Yuen Dynasty; it is not
used before nor is it to be found in the Si-ngan-fu inscription (l.c. 82).
Mr. E. H. Parker (_China Review_, xxiv. p. 157) supplies a few omissions
in Deveria's paper; we note among others: "Ninth moon of 1329. Buddhist
services ordered to be held by the Uighur priests, and by the Christians
[_Ye li ke un_]."
Captain Wellby writes (_Unknown Tibet_, p. 32): "We impressed into our
service six other muleteers, four of them being Argoons, who are really
half-castes, arising from the merchants of Turkestan making short
marriages with the Ladakhi women."--H. C.]
Our author gives the odd word _Guasmul_ as the French equivalent of Argon.
M. Pauthier has first, of Polo's editors, given the true explanation from
Ducange. The word appears to have been in use in the Levant among the
Franks as a name for the half-breeds sprung from their own unions with
Greek women. It occurs three times in the history of George Pachymeres.
Thus he says (_Mich. Pal._ III. 9), that the Emperor Michael "depended
upon the _Gasmuls_, or mixt breeds ([Greek: symmiktoi]), which is the
sense of this word of the Italian tongue, for these were born of Greeks
and Italians, and sent them to man his ships; for the race in question
inherited at once the military wariness and quick wit of the Greeks, and
the dash and pertinacity of the Latins." Again (IV. 26) he speaks of these
"Gasmuls, whom a Greek would call [Greek: digeneis], men sprung from Greek
mothers and Italian fathers." Nicephorus Gregoras also relates how Michael
Palaeologus, to oppose the projects of Baldwin for the recovery of his
fortunes, manned 60 galleys, chiefly with the tribe of Gasmuls ([Greek:
genos tou Gasmoulikou]), to whom he assigns the same characteristics as
Pachymeres. (IV. v. 5, also VI. iii. 3, and XIV. x. 2.) One MS. of Nicetas
Choniates also, in his annals of Manuel Comnenus (see Paris ed. p. 425),
speaks of "the light troops whom we call _Basmuls_." Thus it would seem
that, as in the analogous case of the _Turcopuli_, sprung from Turk
fathers and Greek mothers, their name had come to be applied technically
to a class of troops. According to Buchon, the laws of the Venetians in
Candia mention, as different races in that island, the _Vasmulo_, Latino,
Blaco, and Griego.
Ducange, in one of his notes on Joinville, says: "During the time that the
French possessed Constantinople, they gave the name of _Gas-moules_ to
those who were born of French fathers and Greek mothers; or more probably
_Gaste-moules_, by way of derision, as if such children by those irregular
marriages ... had in some sort debased the wombs of their mothers!" I have
little doubt (_pace tanti viri_) that the word is in a Gallicized form the
same with the surviving Italian _Guazzabuglio_, a hotch-potch, or
mish-mash. In Davanzati's _Tacitus_, the words "Colluviem _illam nationum_"
(_Annal._ II. 55) are rendered "_quello_ guazzabuglio _di nazioni_," in
which case we come very close to the meaning assigned to _Guasmul_. The
Italians are somewhat behind in matters of etymology, and I can get no
light from them on the history of this word. (See _Buchon_, _Chroniques
Etrangeres_, p. xv.; _Ducange_, _Gloss. Graecitatis_, and his note on
_Joinville_, in _Bohn's Chron. of the Crusades_, 466.)
NOTE 5.--It has often been cast in Marco's teeth that he makes no mention
of the Great Wall of China, and that is true; whilst the apologies made
for the omission have always seemed to me unsatisfactory. [I find in Sir
G. Staunton's account of Macartney's Embassy (II. p. 185) this most
amusing explanation of the reason why Marco Polo did not mention the wall:
"A copy of Marco Polo's route to China, taken from the Doge's Library at
Venice, is sufficient to decide this question. By this route it appears
that, in fact, that traveller did not pass through Tartary to Pekin, but
that after having followed the usual track of the caravans, as far to the
eastward from Europe as Samarcand and Cashgar, he bent his course to the
south-east across the River Ganges to Bengal (!), and, keeping to the
southward of the Thibet mountains, reached the Chinese province of
Shensee, and through the adjoining province of Shansee to the capital,
without interfering with the line of the Great Wall."--H. C.] We shall see
presently that the Great Wall is spoken of by Marco's contemporaries
Rashiduddin and Abulfeda. Yet I think, if we read "between the lines," we
shall see reason to believe that the Wall _was_ in Polo's mind at this
point of the dictation, whatever may have been his motive for withholding
distincter notice of it.[7] I cannot conceive why he should say: "Here is
what we call the country of Gog and Magog," except as intimating "Here we
are _beside the_ GREAT WALL known as the Rampart of Gog and Magog," and
being there he tries to find a reason why those names should have been
applied to it. Why they were really applied to it we have already seen.
(Supra, ch. iv. note 3.) Abulfeda says: "The Ocean turns northward along
the east of China, and then expands in the same direction till it passes
China, and comes opposite to the Rampart of Yajuj and Majuj;" whilst the
same geographer's definition of the boundaries of China exhibits that
country as bounded on the west by the Indo-Chinese wildernesses; on the
south, by the seas; on the east, by the Eastern Ocean; on the north, by
the _land of Yajuj and Majuj_, and other countries unknown. Ibn Batuta,
with less accurate geography in his head than Abulfeda, maugre his
travels, asks about the Rampart of Gog and Magog (_Sadd Yajuj wa Majuj_)
when he is at Sin Kalan, i.e. Canton, and, as might be expected, gets
little satisfaction.
[Illustration: The Rampart of Gog and Magog]
Apart from this interesting point Marsden seems to be right in the general
bearing of his explanation of the passage, and I conceive that the two
classes of people whom Marco tries to identify with Gog and Magog do
substantially represent the two genera or species, TURKS and MONGOLS, or,
according to another nomenclature used by Rashiduddin, the _White_ and
_Black_ Tartars. To the latter class belonged Chinghiz and his MONGOLS
proper, with a number of other tribes detailed by Rashiduddin, and these I
take to be in a general way the MUNGUL of our text. The _Ung_ on the other
hand, are the UNG-_kut_, the latter form being presumably only the Mongol
plural of UNG. The Ung-kut were a Turk tribe who were vassals of the Kin
Emperors of Cathay, and were intrusted with the defence of the Wall of
China, or an important portion of it, which was called by the Mongols
_Ungu_, a name which some connect with that of the tribe. [See note pp.
288-9.] Erdmann indeed asserts that the wall by which the Ung-kut dwelt
was not the Great Wall, but some other. There are traces of other great
ramparts in the steppes north of the present wall. But Erdmann's arguments
seem to me weak in the extreme.
[Mr. Rockhill (_Rubruck_, p. 112) writes: "The earliest mention I have
found of the name _Mongol_ in Oriental works occurs in the Chinese annals
of the After T'ang period (A.D. 923-934), where it occurs in the form
_Meng-ku_. In the annals of the Liao Dynasty (A.D. 916-1125) it is found
under the form _Meng-ku-li_. The first occurrence of the name in the _Tung
chien kang mu_ is, however, in the 6th year Shao-hsing of Kao-tsung of the
Sung (A.D. 1136). It is just possible that we may trace the word back a
little earlier than the After T'ang period, and that the _Meng-wa_ (or
_ngo_ as this character may have been pronounced at the time), a branch of
the Shih-wei, a Tungusic or Kitan people living around Lake Keule, to the
east of the Baikal, and along the Kerulun, which empties into it, during
the 7th and subsequent centuries, and referred to in the _T'ang shu_ (Bk.
219), is the same as the later Meng-ku. Though I have been unable to find,
as stated by Howorth (_History_, i. pt. I. 28), that the name _Meng-ku_
occurs in the T'ang shu, his conclusion that the northern Shih-wei of that
time constituted the Mongol nation proper is very likely correct.... I. J.
Schmidt (_Ssanang Setzen_, 380) derives the name _Mongol_ from _mong_,
meaning 'brave, daring, bold,' while Rashiduddin says it means 'simple,
weak' (_d'Ohsson_, i. 22). The Chinese characters used to transcribe the
name mean 'dull, stupid,' and 'old, ancient,' but they are used purely
phonetically.... The Mongols of the present day are commonly called by the
Chinese _Ta-tzu_, but this name is resented by the Mongols as opprobrious,
though it is but an abbreviated form of the name _Ta-ta-tzu_, in which,
according to Rubruck, they once gloried."--H. C.]
Vincent of Beauvais has got from some of his authorities a conception of
the distinction of the Tartars into two races, to which, however, he
assigns no names: "_Sunt autem duo genera Tartarorum, diversa quidem
habentia idiomata, sed unicam legem ac ritum, sicut Franci et
Theutonici_." But the result of _his_ effort to find a realisation of Gog
and Magog is that he makes _Guyuk Kaan_ into Gog, and _Mangu Kaan_ into
Magog. Even the intelligent Friar Ricold says of the Tartars: "They say
themselves that they are descended from Gog and Magog: and on this account
they are called _Mogoli_, as if from a corruption of _Magogoli_."
(_Abulfeda_ in _Buesching_, IV. 140, 274-275; _I. B._ IV. 274; _Golden
Horde_, 34, 68; _Erdmann_, 241-242, 257-258; _Timk._ I. 259, 263, 268;
_Vinc. Bellov. Spec. Hist._ XXIX. 73, XXXI. 32-34; _Pereg. Quat._ 118;
_Not. et Ext._ II. 536.)
NOTE 6.--The towns and villages were probably those immediately north of
the Great Wall, between 112 deg. and 115 deg. East longitude, of which many
remains exist, ascribed to the time of the Yuen or Mongol Dynasty. This
tract, between the Great Wall and the volcanic plateau of Mongolia, is
extensively colonised by Chinese, and has resumed the flourishing aspect
that Polo describes. It is known now as the _Ku-wei_, or extramural
region.
[After Kalgan, Captain Younghusband, on the 12th April, 1886, "passed
through the [outer] Great Wall ... entering what Marco Polo calls the land
of Gog and Magog. For the next two days I passed through a hilly country
inhabited by Chinese, though it really belongs to Mongolia; but on the
14th I emerged on to the real steppes, which are the characteristic
features of Mongolia Proper." (_Proc. R. G. S._ X., 1888, p. 490.)--H. C.]
Of the cloths called _nakh_ and _nasij_ we have spoken before (supra ch.
vi. note 4). These stuffs, or some such as these, were, I believe, what
the mediaeval writers called _Tartary cloth_, not because they were made
in Tartary, but because they were brought from China and its borders
through the Tartar dominions; as we find that for like reason they were
sometimes called stuffs of _Russia_. Dante alludes to the supposed skill
of Turks and Tartars in weaving gorgeous stuffs, and Boccaccio, commenting
thereon, says that Tartarian cloths are so skilfully woven that no painter
with his brush could equal them. Maundevile often speaks of cloths of
Tartary (e.g. pp. 175, 247). So also Chaucer:
"On every trumpe hanging a broad banere Of fine _Tartarium_."
Again, in the French inventory of the _Garde-Meuble_ of 1353 we find two
pieces of _Tartary_, one green and the other red, priced at 15 crowns
each. (_Flower and Leaf_, 211; _Dante, Inf._ XVII. 17, and _Longfellow_,
p. 159; _Douet d'Arcq_, p. 328; _Fr.-Michel, Rech._ I. 315, II. 166 seqq.)
NOTE 7.--SINDACHU (Sindacui, Suidatui, etc., of the MSS.) is SIUEN-HWA-FU,
called under the Kin Dynasty _Siuen-te-chau_, more than once besieged and
taken by Chinghiz. It is said to have been a summer residence of the later
Mongol Emperors, and fine parks full of grand trees remain on the western
side. It is still a large town and the capital of a _Fu_, about 25 miles
south of the Gate on the Great Wall at Chang Kia Kau, which the Mongols
and Russians call Kalgan. There is still a manufacture of felt and woollen
articles here.
[Mr. Rockhill writes to me that this place is noted for the manufacture of
buckskins.--H. C.]
_Ydifu_ has not been identified. But Baron Richthofen saw old mines
north-east of Kalgan, which used to yield argentiferous galena; and
Pumpelly heard of silver-mines near Yuchau, in the same department.
[In the _Yuen-shi_ it is "stated that there were gold and silver mines in
the districts of Siuen-te-chow and Yuchow, as well as in the Kiming shan
Mountains. These mines were worked by the Government itself up to 1323,
when they were transferred to private enterprise. Marco Polo's _Ydifu_ is
probably a copyist's error, and stands instead of Yuchow." (_Palladius_,
24, 25.)--H. C.]
[1] Mr. Ney Elias favours me with a curious but tantalising communication
on this subject: "An old man called on me at Kwei-hwa Ch'eng (Tenduc),
who said he was neither Chinaman, Mongol, nor Mahomedan, and lived on
ground a short distance to the north of the city, especially allotted
to his ancestors by the Emperor, and where there now exist several
families of the same origin. He then mentioned the connection of his
family with that of the Emperor, but in what way I am not clear, and
said that he ought to be, or had been, a prince. Other people coming
in, he was interrupted and went away.... He was not with me more than
ten minutes, and the incident is a specimen of the difficulty in
obtaining interesting information, except by mere chance.... The idea
that struck me was, that he was perhaps a descendant of King George of
Tenduc; for I had your M. P. before me, and had been inquiring as much
as I dared about subjects it suggested.... At Kwei-hwa Ch'eng I was
very closely spied, and my servant was frequently told to warn me
against asking too many questions."
I should mention that Oppert, in his very interesting monograph, _Der
Presbyter Johannes_, refuses to recognise the Kerait chief at all in
that character, and supposes Polo's King George to be the
representative of a prince of the Liao (supra, p. 205), who, as we
learn from De Mailla's History, after the defeat of the Kin, in which
he had assisted Chinghiz, settled in Liaotung, and received from the
conqueror the title of King of the Liao. This seems to me
geographically and otherwise quite inadmissible.
[2] The term _Arkaiun_, or _Arkaun_, in this sense, occurs in the Armenian
History of Stephen Orpelian, quoted by St. Martin. The author of the
_Tarikh Jahan Kushai_, cited by D'Ohsson, says that Christians were
called by the Mongols _Arkaun_. When Hulaku invested Baghdad we are
told that he sent a letter to the Judges, Shaikhs, Doctors and
_Arkauns_, promising to spare such as should act peaceably. And in the
subsequent sack we hear that no houses were spared except those of a
few _Arkauns_ and foreigners. In Rashiduddin's account of the Council
of State at Peking, we are told that the four _Fanchan_, or Ministers
of the Second Class, were taken from the four nations of Tajiks,
Cathayans, Uighurs, and _Arkaun_. Sabadin _Arkaun_ was the name of one
of the Envoys sent by Arghun Khan of Persia to the Pope in 1288.
Traces of the name appear also in Chinese documents of the Mongol era,
as denoting _some_ religious body. Some of these have been quoted by
Mr. Wylie; but I have seen no notice taken of a very curious extract
given by Visdelou. This states that Kublai in 1289 established a Board
of nineteen chief officers to have surveillance of the affairs of the
Religion of the Cross, of the _Marha_, the _Siliepan_, and the
_Yelikhawen_. This Board was raised to a higher rank in 1315: and at
that time 72 minor courts presiding over the religion of the
_Yelikhawen_ existed under its supervision. Here we evidently have the
word _Arkhaiun_ in a Chinese form; and we may hazard the suggestion
that _Marha_, _Siliepan_ and _Yelikhawen_ meant respectively the
Armenian, Syrian, or Jacobite, and Nestorian Churches. (_St. Martin,
Mem._ II. 133, 143, 279; _D'Ohsson_, II. 264; _Ilchan_, I. 150, 152;
_Cathay_, 264; _Acad._ VII. 359; Wylie in _J. As._ V. xix. 406. Suppt.
to _D'Herbelot_, 142.)
[3] The word is not in Zenker or Pavet de Courteille.
[4] Mr. Shaw writes _Toonganee_. The first mention of this name that I
know of is in Izzat Ullah's Journal. (Vide _J. R. A. S._ VII. 310.)
The people are there said to have got the name from having first
settled in _Tungan_. Tung-gan is in the same page the name given to
the strong city of T'ung Kwan on the Hwang-ho. (See Bk. II. ch. xli.
note 1.) A variety of etymologies have been given, but Vambery's seems
the most probable.
[5] Probably no man could now say what this means. But the following note
from Mr. Ney Elias is very interesting in its suggestion of analogy:
"In my report to the Geographical Society I have noticed the peculiar
Western appearance of Kwei-hwa-ch'eng, and the little gardens of
creepers and flowers in pots which are displayed round the porches in
the court-yards of the better class of houses, and which I have seen
in no other part of China. My attention was especially drawn to these
by your quotation from Rashiduddin."
[6] A translation of _Heins'_ was kindly lent me by the author of this
article, the lamented Mr. J. W. S. Wyllie.
[7] I owe the suggestion of this to a remark in _Oppert's Presbyter
Johannes_, p. 77.
CHAPTER LX.
CONCERNING THE KAAN'S PALACE OF CHAGANNOR.
At the end of those three days you find a city called CHAGAN NOR [which is
as much as to say White Pool], at which there is a great Palace of the
Grand Kaan's;[NOTE 1] and he likes much to reside there on account of the
Lakes and Rivers in the neighbourhood, which are the haunt of swans[NOTE
2] and of a great variety of other birds. The adjoining plains too abound
with cranes, partridges, pheasants, and other game birds, so that the
Emperor takes all the more delight in staying there, in order to go
a-hawking with his gerfalcons and other falcons, a sport of which he is
very fond.[NOTE 3]
There are five different kinds of cranes found in those tracts, as I shall
tell you. First, there is one which is very big, and all over as black as
a crow; the second kind again is all white, and is the biggest of all; its
wings are really beautiful, for they are adorned with round eyes like
those of a peacock, but of a resplendent golden colour, whilst the head is
red and black on a white ground. The third kind is the same as ours. The
fourth is a small kind, having at the ears beautiful long pendent feathers
of red and black. The fifth kind is grey all over and of great size, with
a handsome head, red and black.[NOTE 4]
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