The Travels of Marco Polo Volume 1 - Marco Polo and Rustichello of Pisa
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One of the pavilions of the celebrated Yuen-ming-Yuen may give some idea
of the probable style, though not of the scale, of Kublai's Summer Palace.
Hiuen Tsang's account of the elaborate and fantastic ornamentation of the
famous Indian monasteries at Nalanda in Bahar, where Mr. Broadley has
lately made such remarkable discoveries, seems to indicate that these
fantasies of Burmese and Chinese architecture may have had a direct origin
in India, at a time when timber was still a principal material of
construction there: "The pavilions had pillars adorned with dragons, and
posts that glowed with all the colours of the rainbow, sculptured frets,
columns set with jade, richly chiselled and lackered, with balustrades of
vermilion, and carved open work. The lintels of the doors were tastefully
ornamented, and the roofs covered with shining tiles, the splendours of
which were multiplied by mutual reflection and from moment to moment took
a thousand forms." (_Vie et Voyages_, 157.)
NOTE 3.--[Rubruck says, (_Rockhill_, p. 248): "I saw also the envoy of
a certain Soldan of India, who had brought eight leopards and ten
_greyhounds_, taught to sit on horses' backs, as leopards sit."--H. C.]
NOTE 4.--Ramusio's is here so much more lucid than the other texts, that
I have adhered mainly to his account of the building. The roof described
is of a kind in use in the Indian Archipelago, and in some other parts of
Transgangetic India, in which the semi-cylinders of bamboo are laid just
like Roman tiles.
Rashiduddin gives a curious account of the way in which the foundations of
the terrace on which this palace stood were erected in a lake. He says,
too, in accord with Polo: "Inside the city itself a second palace was
built, about a bowshot from the first: but the Kaan generally takes up his
residence in the palace outside the town," i.e., as I imagine, in Marco's
Cane Palace. (_Cathay_, pp. 261-262.)
["_The Palace of canes_ is probably the Palm Hall, _Tsung tien_, alias
_Tsung mao tien_, of the Chinese authors, which was situated in the
western palace garden of Shangtu. Mention is made also in the _Altan
Tobchi_ of a cane tent in Shangtu." (_Palladius_, p. 27.)--H. C.]
[Illustration: Pavilion at Yuen-ming-Yuen.]
Marco might well say of the bamboo that "it serves also a great variety of
other purposes." An intelligent native of Arakan who accompanied me in
wanderings on duty in the forests of the Burmese frontier in the beginning
of 1853, and who used to ask many questions about Europe, seemed able to
apprehend almost everything except the possibility of existence in a
country without bamboos! "When I speak of bamboo huts, I mean to say that
posts and walls, wall-plates and rafters, floor and thatch, and the withes
that bind them, are all of bamboo. In fact, it might almost be said that
among the Indo-Chinese nations the staff of life is _a bamboo!_
Scaffolding and ladders, landing-jetties, fishing apparatus, irrigation
wheels and scoops, oars, masts, and yards [and in China, sails, cables,
and caulking, asparagus, medicine, and works of fantastic art], spears and
arrows, hats and helmets, bow, bowstring and quiver, oil-cans,
water-stoups and cooking-pots, pipe-sticks [tinder and means of producing
fire], conduits, clothes-boxes, pawn-boxes, dinner-trays, pickles,
preserves, and melodious musical instruments, torches, footballs, cordage,
bellows, mats, paper; these are but a few of the articles that are made
from the bamboo;" and in China, to sum up the whole, as Barrow observes, it
maintains order throughout the Empire! (_Ava Mission_, p. 153; and see also
_Wallace, Ind. Arch._ I. 120 seqq.)
NOTE 5.--"The Emperor ... began this year (1264) to depart from Yenking
(Peking) in the second or third month for Shangtu, not returning until the
eighth month. Every year he made this passage, and all the Mongol emperors
who succeeded him followed his example." (_Gaubil_, p. 144.)
["The Khans usually resorted to Shangtu in the 4th moon and returned to
Peking in the 9th. On the 7th day of the 7th moon there were libations
performed in honour of the ancestors; a shaman, his face to the north,
uttered in a loud voice the names of Chingiz Khan and of other deceased
Khans, and poured mare's milk on the ground. The propitious day for the
return journey to Peking was also appointed then." (_Palladius_,
p. 26.)--H. C.]
NOTE 6.--White horses were presented in homage to the Kaan on New Year's
Day (_the White Feast_), as we shall see below. (Bk. II. ch. xv.) Odoric
also mentions this practice; and, according to Huc, the Mongol chiefs
continued it at least to the time of the Emperor K'ang-hi. Indeed
Timkowski speaks of annual tributes of white camels and white horses from
the Khans of the Kalkas and other Mongol dignitaries, in the present
century. (_Huc's Tartary_, etc.; _Tim._ II. 33.)
By the HORIAD are no doubt intended the UIRAD or OIRAD, a name usually
interpreted as signifying the "Closely Allied," or Confederates; but
Vambery explains it as (Turki) _Oyurat_, "Grey horse," to which the
statement in our text appears to lend colour. They were not of the tribes
properly called Mongol, but after their submission to Chinghiz they
remained closely attached to him. In Chinghiz's victory over Aung-Khan, as
related by S. Setzen, we find Turulji Taishi, the son of the chief of the
Oirad, one of Chinghiz's three chief captains; perhaps that is the victory
alluded to. The seats of the Oirad appear to have been about the head
waters of the Kem, or Upper Yenisei.
In A.D. 1295 there took place a curious desertion from the service of
Ghazan Khan of Persia of a vast corps of the Oirad, said to amount to
18,000 _tents_. They made their way to Damascus, where they were well
received by the Mameluke Sultan. But their heathenish practices gave dire
offence to the Faithful. They were settled in the _Sahil_, or coast
districts of Palestine. Many died speedily; the rest embraced Islam,
spread over the country, and gradually became absorbed in the general
population. Their sons and daughters were greatly admired for their
beauty. (_S. Setz._ p. 87; _Erdmann_, 187; _Pallas, Samml._ I. 5 seqq.;
_Makrizi_, III. 29; _Bretschneider, Med. Res._ II. p. 159 seqq.)
[With reference to Yule's conjecture, I may quote Palladius (l.c. p. 27):
"It is, however, strange that the Oirats alone enjoyed the privilege
described by Marco Polo; for the highest position at the Mongol Khan's
court belonged to the Kunkrat tribe, out of which the Khans used to choose
their first wives, who were called Empresses of the first _ordo_."--H. C.]
NOTE 7.--Rubruquis assigns such a festival to the month of May: "On the
9th day of the May Moon they collect all the white mares of their herds
and consecrate them. The Christian priests also must then assemble with
their thuribles. They then sprinkle new cosmos (_kumiz_) on the ground,
and make a great feast that day, for according to their calendar, it is
their time of first drinking new cosmos, just as we reckon of our new wine
at the feast of St. Bartholomew (24th August), or that of St. Sixtus (6th
August), or of our fruit on the feast of St. James and St. Christopher"
(25th July). [With reference to this feast, Mr. Rockhill gives (_Rubruck_,
p. 241, note) extracts from _Pallas, Voyages_, IV. 579, and _Professor
Radloff, Aus Siberien_, I. 378.--H. C.] The Yakuts also hold such a
festival in June or July, when the mares foal, and immense wooden goblets
of kumiz are emptied on that occasion. They also pour out kumiz for the
Spirits to the four quarters of heaven.
The following passage occurs in the narrative of the Journey of Chang
Te-hui, a Chinese teacher, who was summoned to visit the camp of Kublai in
Mongolia, some twelve years before that Prince ascended the throne of the
Kaans:[4]
"On the 9th day of the 9th Moon (October), the Prince, having called his
subjects before his chief tent, performed the libation of the milk of a
white mare. This was the customary sacrifice at that time. The vessels
used were made of birch-bark, not ornamented with either silver or gold.
Such here is the respect for simplicity....
"At the last day of the year the Mongols suddenly changed their
camping-ground to another place, for the mutual congratulation on the 1st
Moon. Then there was every day feasting before the tents for the lower
ranks. Beginning with the Prince, all dressed themselves in white fur
clothing....[5]
"On the 9th day of the 4th Moon (May) the Prince again collected his
vassals before the chief tent for the libation of the milk of a white
mare. This sacrifice is performed twice a year."
It has been seen (p. 308) that Rubruquis also names the 9th day of the May
moon as that of the consecration of the white mares. The autumn libation
is described by Polo as performed on the 28th day of the August moon,
probably because it was unsuited to the circumstances of the Court at
Cambaluc, where the Kaan was during October, and the day named was the
last of his annual stay in the Mongolian uplands.
Baber tells that among the ceremonies of a Mongol Review the Khan and his
staff took kumiz and sprinkled it towards the standards. An Armenian
author of the Mongol era says that it was the custom of the Tartars,
before drinking, to sprinkle drink towards heaven, and towards the four
quarters. Mr. Atkinson notices the same practice among the Kirghiz: and I
found the like in old days among the Kasias of the eastern frontier of
Bengal.
The time of year assigned by Polo for the ceremony implies some change.
Perhaps it had been made to coincide with the Festival of Water
Consecration of the Lamas, with which the time named in the text seems to
correspond. On that occasion the Lamas go in procession to the rivers and
lakes and consecrate them by benediction and by casting in offerings,
attended by much popular festivity.
Rubruquis seems to intimate that the Nestorian priests were employed to
consecrate the white mares by incensing them. In the rear of Lord
Canning's camp in India I once came upon the party of his _Shutr Suwars_,
or dromedary-express riders, busily engaged in incensing with frankincense
the whole of the dromedaries, which were kneeling in a circle. I could get
no light on the practice, but it was very probably a relic of the old
Mongol custom. (_Rubr._ 363; _Erman_, II. 397; _Billings' Journey_, Fr.
Tr. I. 217; _Baber_, 103; _J. As._ ser. V. tom. xi. p. 249; _Atk. Amoor_,
p. 47; _J. A. S. B._ XIII. 628; _Koeppen_, II. 313.)
NOTE 8.--The practice of weather-conjuring was in great vogue among the
Mongols, and is often alluded to in their history.
The operation was performed by means of a stone of magical virtues, called
_Yadah_ or _Jadah-Tash_, which was placed in or hung over a basin of water
with sundry ceremonies. The possession of such a stone is ascribed by the
early Arab traveller Ibn Mohalhal to the _Kimak_, a great tribe of the
Turks. In the war raised against Chinghiz and Aung Khan, when still
allies, by a great confederation of the Naiman and other tribes in 1202,
we are told that Sengun, the son of Aung Khan, when sent to meet the
enemy, caused them to be enchanted, so that all their attempted movements
against him were defeated by snow and mist. The fog and darkness were
indeed so dense that many men and horses fell over precipices, and many
also perished with cold. In another account of (apparently) the same
matter, given by Mir-Khond, the conjuring is set on foot by the _Yadachi_
of Buyruk Khan, Prince of the Naiman, but the mischief all rebounds on the
conjurer's own side.
In Tului's invasion of Honan in 1231-1232, Rashiduddin describes him, when
in difficulty, as using the _Jadah_ stone with success.
Timur, in his Memoirs, speaks of the Jets using incantations to produce
heavy rains which hindered his cavalry from acting against them. A
_Yadachi_ was captured, and when his head had been taken off the storm
ceased.
Baber speaks of one of his early friends, Khwaja Ka Mulai, as excelling in
falconry and acquainted with _Yadagari_ or the art of bringing on rain and
snow by means of enchantment. When the Russians besieged Kazan in 1552
they suffered much from the constant heavy rains, and this annoyance was
universally ascribed to the arts of the Tartar Queen, who was celebrated
as an enchantress. Shah Abbas believed he had learned the Tartar secret,
and put much confidence in it. (_P. Delia V._ I. 869.)
[Grenard says (II. p. 256) the most powerful and most feared of sorcerers
[in Chinese Turkestan] is the _djaduger_, who, to produce rain or fine
weather, uses a jade stone, given by Noah to Japhet. Grenard adds (II.
406-407) there are sorcerers (Ngag-pa-snags-pa) whose specialty is to make
rain fall; they are similar to the Turkish _Yadachi_ and like them use a
stone called "water cristal," _chu shel_; probably jade stone.
Mr. Rockhill (_Rubruck_, p. 245, note) writes: "Rashideddin states that
when the Urianghit wanted to bring a storm to an end, they said injuries
to the sky, the lightning and thunder. I have seen this done myself by
Mongol storm-dispellers. (See _Diary_, 201, 203.) 'The other Mongol
people,' he adds, 'do the contrary. When the storm rumbles, they remain
shut up in their huts, full of fear.' The subject of storm-making, and the
use of stones for that purpose, is fully discussed by Quatremere,
_Histoire_, 438-440." (Cf. also _Rockhill_, l.c. p. 254.)--H. C.]
An edict of the Emperor Shi-tsung, of the reigning dynasty, addressed in
1724-1725 to the Eight Banners of Mongolia, warns them against this
rain-conjuring: "If I," indignantly observes the Emperor, "offering prayer
in sincerity have yet room to fear that it may please Heaven to leave MY
prayer unanswered, it is truly intolerable that mere common people wishing
for rain should at their own caprice set up altars of earth, and bring
together a rabble of Hoshang (Buddhist Bonzes) and Taosse to conjure the
spirits to gratify their wishes."
["Lamas were of various extraction; at the time of the great assemblies,
and of the Khan's festivities in Shangtu, they erected an altar near the
Khan's tent and prayed for fine weather; the whistling of shells rose up
to heaven." These are the words in which Marco Polo's narrative is
corroborated by an eye-witness who has celebrated the remarkable objects
of Shangtu (_Loan king tsa yung_). These Lamas, in spite of the
prohibition by the Buddhist creed of bloody sacrifices, used to sacrifice
sheep's hearts to Mahakala. It happened, as it seems, that the heart of an
executed criminal was also considered an agreeable offering; and as the
offerings could be, after the ceremony, eaten by the sacrificing priests,
Marco Polo had some reason to accuse the Lamas of cannibalism.
(_Palladius_, 28.)--H. C.]
The practice of weather-conjuring is not yet obsolete in Tartary, Tibet,
and the adjoining countries.[6]
Weather-conjuring stories were also rife in Europe during the Middle Ages.
One such is conspicuously introduced in connection with a magical fountain
in the romance of the _Chevalier au Lyon_:
"Et s'i pant uns bacins d'or fin
A une si longue chaainne
Qui dure jusqu'a la fontainne,
Lez la fontainne troveras
Un perron tel con tu verras
* * * *
S'au bacin viaus de l'iaue prandre
Et dessor le perron espandre,
La verras une tel tanpeste
Qu'an cest bois ne remandra beste,"
etc. etc.[7]
The effect foretold in these lines is the subject of a woodcut
illustrating a Welsh version of the same tale in the first volume of the
_Mabinogion_. And the existence of such a fountain is alluded to by
Alexander Neckam. (_De Naturis Rerum_, Bk. II. ch. vii.)
In the _Cento Novelle Antiche_ also certain necromancers exhibit their
craft before the Emperor Frederic (Barbarossa apparently): "The weather
began to be overcast, and lo of a sudden rain began to fall with continued
thunders and lightnings, as if the world were come to an end, and
hailstones that looked like steel-caps," etc. Various other European
legends of like character will be found in _Liebrecht's Gervasius von
Tilbury_, pp. 147-148.
Rain-makers there are in many parts of the world; but it is remarkable
that those also of Samoa in the Pacific operate by means of a
_rain-stone_.
Such weather conjurings as we have spoken of are ascribed by Ovid to
Circe:
"Concipit illa preces, et verba venefica dicit;
Ignotosque Deos ignoto carmine adorat,
* * * *
_Tunc quoque cantato densetur carmine caelum,
Et nebulas exhalat humus_."--_Metam._ XIV. 365.
And to Medea:--
--"Quum volui, ripis mirantibus, amnes
In fontes rediere suos ... (another feat of the Lamas)
... _Nubila pello,
Nubilaque induco; ventos abigoque, vocoque_."--Ibid. VII. 199.
And by Tibullus to the _Saga_ (_Eleg._ I. 2, 45); whilst Empedocles, in
verses ascribed to him by Diogenes Laertius, claims power to communicate
like secrets of potency:--
"By my spells thou may'st
To timely sunshine turn the purple rains,
And parching droughts to fertilising floods."
(See _Cathay_, p. clxxxvii.; _Erdm._ 282; _Oppert_, 182 seqq.; _Erman_,
I. 153; _Pallas, Samml._ II. 348 seqq.; _Timk._ I. 402; _J. R. A. S._
VII. 305-306; _D'Ohsson_, II. 614; and for many interesting particulars,
_Q. R._ p. 428 seqq., and _Hammers Golden Horde_, 207 and 435 seqq.)
NOTE 9.--It is not clear whether Marco attributes this cannibalism to the
Tibetans and Kashmirians, or brings it in as a particular of Tartar custom
which he had forgotten to mention before.
The accusations of cannibalism indeed against the Tibetans in old accounts
are frequent, and I have elsewhere (see _Cathay_, p. 151) remarked on some
singular Tibetan practices which go far to account for such charges. Della
Penna, too, makes a statement which bears curiously on the present
passage. Remarking on the great use made by certain classes of the Lamas
of human skulls for magical cups, and of human thigh bones for flutes and
whistles, he says that to supply them with these _the bodies of executed
criminals were stored up of the disposal of the Lamas_; and a Hindu
account of Tibet in the _Asiatic Researches_ asserts that when one is
killed in a fight both parties rush forward and struggle for the liver,
which they eat (vol. xv).
[Carpini says of the people of Tibet: "They are pagans; they have a most
astonishing, or rather horrible, custom, for, when any one's father is
about to give up the ghost, all the relatives meet together, and they eat
him, as was told to me for certain." Mr. Rockhill (_Rubruck_, p. 152,
note) writes: "So far as I am aware, this charge [of cannibalism] is not
made by any Oriental writer against the Tibetans, though both Arab
travellers to China in the ninth century and Armenian historians of the
thirteenth century say the Chinese practised cannibalism. The Armenians
designate China by the name _Nankas_, which I take to be Chinese
_Nan-kuo_, 'southern country,' the _Manzi_ country of Marco Polo."--H. C.]
But like charges of cannibalism are brought against both Chinese and
Tartars very positively. Thus, without going back to the Anthropophagous
Scythians of Ptolemy and Mela, we read in the _Relations_ of the Arab
travellers of the ninth century: "In China it occurs sometimes that the
governor of a province revolts from his duty to the emperor. In such a
case he is slaughtered and eaten. _In fact, the Chinese eat the flesh of
all men who are executed by the sword_." Dr. Rennie mentions a
superstitious practice, the continued existence of which in our own day he
has himself witnessed, and which might perhaps have given rise to some
such statement as that of the Arab travellers, if it be not indeed a
relic, in a mitigated form, of the very practice they assert to have
prevailed. After an execution at Peking certain large pith balls are
steeped in the blood, and under the name of _blood-bread_ are sold as a
medicine for consumption. _It is only to the blood of decapitated
criminals that any such healing power is attributed_. It has been asserted
in the annals of the _Propagation de la Foi_ that the Chinese executioners
of M. Chapdelaine, a missionary who was martyred in Kwang-si in 1856 (28th
February), were seen to eat the heart of their victim; and M. Huot, a
missionary in the Yun-nan province, recounts a case of cannibalism which
he witnessed. Bishop Chauveau, at Ta Ts'ien-lu, told Mr. Cooper that he
had seen men in one of the cities of Yun-nan eating the heart and brains
of a celebrated robber who had been executed. Dr. Carstairs Douglas of
Amoy also tells me that the like practices have occurred at Amoy and
Swatau.
[With reference to cannibalism in China see _Medical Superstitions an
Incentive to Anti-Foreign Riots in China_, by _D. J. Macgowan, North China
Herald_, 8th July, 1892, pp. 60-62. Mr. E. H. Parker (_China Review_,
February-March, 1901, 136) relates that the inhabitants of a part of
Kwang-si boiled and ate a Chinese officer who had been sent to pacify
them. "The idea underlying this horrible act [cannibalism] is, that by
eating a portion of the victim, especially the heart, one acquires the
valour with which he was endowed." (_Dennys' Folk-lore of China_, 67.)--H.
C.]
Hayton, the Armenian, after relating the treason of a Saracen, called
Parwana (he was an Iconian Turk), against Abaka Khan, says: "He was taken
and cut in two, and orders were issued that in all the food eaten by Abaka
there should be put a portion of the traitor's flesh. Of this Abaka
himself ate, and caused all his barons to partake. _And this was in
accordance with the custom of the Tartars_." The same story is related
independently and differently by Friar Ricold, thus: "When the army of
Abaga ran away from the Saracens in Syria, a certain great Tartar baron
was arrested who had been guilty of treason. And when the Emperor Khan was
giving the order for his execution the Tartar ladies and women interposed,
and begged that he might be made over to them. Having got hold of the
prisoner they boiled him alive, and cutting his body up into mince-meat
gave it to eat to the whole army, as an example to others." Vincent of
Beauvais makes a like statement: "When they capture any one who is at
bitter enmity with them, they gather together and eat him in vengeance of
his revolt, and like infernal leeches suck his blood," a custom of which a
modern Mongol writer thinks that he finds a trace in a surviving proverb.
Among more remote and ignorant Franks the cannibalism of the Tartars was a
general belief. Ivo of Narbonne, in his letter written during the great
Tartar invasion of Europe (1242), declares that the Tartar chiefs, with
their dog's head followers and other _Lotophagi_ (!), ate the bodies of
their victims like so much bread; whilst a Venetian chronicler, speaking
of the council of Lyons in 1274, says there was a discussion about making
a general move against the Tartars, "_porce qu'il manjuent la char
humaine._" These latter writers no doubt rehearsed mere popular beliefs,
but Hayton and Ricold were both intelligent persons well acquainted with
the Tartars, and Hayton at least not prejudiced against them.
The old belief was revived in Prussia during the Seven Years' War, in
regard to the Kalmaks of the Russian army; and Bergmann says the old
Kalmak warriors confessed to him that they had done what they could to
encourage it by cutting up the bodies of the slain in presence of their
prisoners, and roasting them! But Levchine relates an act on the part of
the Kirghiz Kazaks which was no jest. They drank the blood of their victim
if they did not eat his flesh.
There is some reason to believe that cannibalism was in the Middle Ages
generally a less strange and unwonted horror than we should at first blush
imagine, and especially that it was an idea tolerably familiar in China.
M. Bazin, in the second part of _Chine Moderne_, p. 461, after sketching a
Chinese drama of the Mongol era ("The Devotion of Chao-li"), the plot of
which turns on the acts of a body of cannibals, quotes several other
passages from Chinese authors which indicate this. Nor is this wonderful
in the age that had experienced the horrors of the Mongol wars.
That was no doubt a fable which Carpini heard in the camp of the Great
Kaan, that in one of the Mongol sieges in Cathay, when the army was
without food, one man in ten of their own force was sacrificed to feed the
remainder.[8] But we are told in sober history that the force of Tului in
Honan, in 1231-1232, was reduced to such straits as to eat grass and human
flesh. At the siege of the Kin capital Kaifongfu, in 1233, the besieged
were reduced to the like extremity; and the same occurred the same year at
the siege of Tsaichau; and in 1262, when the rebel general Litan was
besieged in Tsinanfu. The Taiping wars the other day revived the same
horrors in all their magnitude. And savage acts of the same kind by the
Chinese and their Turk partisans in the defence of Kashgar were related to
Mr. Shaw.
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