The Travels of Marco Polo Volume 1 - Marco Polo and Rustichello of Pisa
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NOTE 15.--[Mr. Rockhill writes to me that "bran" is certainly Tibetan
_tsamba_ (parched barley).--H. C.]
NOTE 16.--Marco's contempt for _Patarins_ slips out in a later passage
(Bk. III. ch. xx.). The name originated in the eleventh century in
Lombardy, where it came to be applied to the "heretics," otherwise called
"Cathari." Muratori has much on the origin of the name Patarini, and
mentions a monument, which still exists, in the Piazza de' Mercanti at
Milan, in honour of Oldrado Podesta of that city in 1233, and which thus,
with more pith than grammar, celebrates his meritorious acts:--
"Qui solium struxit Catharos _ut debuit_ UXIT."
Other cities were as piously Catholic. A Mantuan chronicler records under
1276: "Captum fuit Sermionum seu redditum fuit Ecclesiae, et capti fuerunt
cercha CL Patarini contra fidem, inter masculos et feminas; qui omnes
ducti fuerunt Veronam, et ibi incarcerati, _et pro magna parte_ COMBUSTI."
(_Murat. Dissert._ III. 238; _Archiv. Stor. Ital._ N.S. I. 49.)
NOTE 17.--Marsden, followed by Pauthier, supposes these unorthodox
ascetics to be Hindu Sanyasis, and the latter editor supposes even the
name _Sensi_ or _Sensin_ to represent that denomination. Such wanderers do
occasionally find their way to Tartary; Gerbillon mentions having
encountered five of them at Kuku Khotan (supra, p. 286), and I think John
Bell speaks of meeting one still further north. But what is said of the
great and numerous idols of the _Sensin_ is inconsistent with such a
notion, as is indeed, it seems to me, the whole scope of the passage.
Evidently no occasional vagabonds from a far country, but some indigenous
sectaries, are in question. Nor would bran and hot water be a Hindu
regimen. The staple diet of the Tibetans is _Chamba_, the meal of toasted
barley, mixed sometimes with warm water, but more frequently with hot tea,
and I think it is probable that these were the elements of the ascetic
diet rather than the mere _bran_ which Polo speaks of. Semedo indeed says
that some of the Buddhist devotees professed never to take any food but
tea; knowing people said they mixed with it pellets of sun-dried beef. The
determination of the sect intended in the text is, I conceive, to be
sought in the history of Chinese or Tibetan Buddhism and their rivals.
Both Baldelli and Neumann have indicated a general opinion that the
_Taosse_ or some branch of that sect is meant, but they have entered into
no particulars except in a reference by the former to _Shien-sien_, a
title of perfection affected by that sect, as the origin of Polo's term
_Sensin_. In the substance of this I think they are right. But I believe
that in the text this Chinese sect are, rightly or wrongly, identified
with the ancient Tibetan sect of _Bon-po_, and that part of the characters
assigned belong to each.
First with regard to the Taosse. These were evidently the _Patarini_ of
the Buddhists in China at this time, and Polo was probably aware of the
persecution which the latter had stirred up Kublai to direct against them
in 1281--persecution at least it is called, though it was but a mild
proceeding in comparison with the thing contemporaneously practised in
Christian Lombardy, for in heathen Cathay, books, and not human creatures,
were the subjects doomed to burn, and even that doom was not carried out.
["The Tao-sze," says M. Polo, "were looked upon as heretics by the other
sects; that is, of course; by the Lamas and Ho-shangs; in fact in his time
a passionate struggle was going on between Buddhists and Tao-sze, or
rather a persecution of the latter by the former; the Buddhists attributed
to the doctrine of the Tao-sze a pernicious tendency, and accused them of
deceit; and in support of these assertions they pointed to some of their
sacred books. Taking advantage of their influence at Court, they persuaded
Kublai to decree the burning of these books, and it was carried out in
Peking." (_Palladius_, 30.)--H. C.]
The term which Polo writes as _Sensin_ appears to have been that popularly
applied to the Taosse sect at the Mongol Court. Thus we are told by
Rashiduddin in his History of Cathay: "In the reign of Din-Wang, the 20th
king of this (the 11th) Dynasty, TAI SHANG LAI KUN, was born. This person
is stated to have been accounted a prophet by the people of Khita; his
father's name was Han; like Shak-muni he is said to have been conceived by
light, and it is related that his mother bore him in her womb no less a
period than 80 years. The people who embraced his doctrine were called
[Arabic] (_Shan-shan_ or _Shinshin_)." This is a correct epitome of the
Chinese story of _Laokiun_ or _Lao-tse_, born in the reign of _Ting Wang_
of the Cheu Dynasty. The whole title used by Rashiduddin, _Tai Shang Lao
Kiun_, "The Great Supreme Venerable Ruler," is that formerly applied by
the Chinese to this philosopher.
Further, in a Mongol [and Chinese] inscription of the year 1314 from the
department of Si-ngan fu, which has been interpreted and published by Mr.
Wylie, the Taosse priests are termed _Senshing_. [See _Deveria, Notes
d'Epigraphie_, pp. 39-43, and Prince _R. Bonaparte's Recueil_, Pl. xii.
No. 3.--H. C.]
Seeing then that the very term used by Polo is that applied by both Mongol
and Persian authorities of the period to the Taosse, we can have no doubt
that the latter are indicated, whether the facts stated about them be
correct or not.
The word Senshing-ud (the Mongol plural) is represented in the Chinese
version of Mr. Wylie's inscription by _Sin-sang_, a conventional title
applied to literary men, and this perhaps is sufficient to determine the
Chinese word which _Sensin_ represents. I should otherwise have supposed
it to be the _Shin-sian_ alluded to by Baldelli, and mentioned in the
quotations which follow; and indeed it seems highly probable that two
terms so much alike should have been confounded by foreigners. Semedo says
of the Taosse: "They pretend that by means of certain exercises and
meditations one shall regain his youth, and others shall attain to be
_Shien-sien_, i.e. 'Terrestrial Beati,' in whose state every desire is
gratified, whilst they have the power to transport themselves from one
place to another, however distant, with speed and facility." Schott, on
the same subject, says: "By _Sian_ or _Shin-sian_ are understood in the
old Chinese conception, and particularly in that of the Tao-Kiao [or
Taosse] sect, persons who withdraw to the hills to lead the life of
anchorites, and who have attained, either through their ascetic
observances or by the power of charms and elixirs, to the possession of
miraculous gifts and of terrestrial immortality." And M. Pauthier himself,
in his translation of the Journey of Khieu, an eminent doctor of this
sect, to the camp of the Great Chinghiz in Turkestan, has related how
Chinghiz bestowed upon this personage "a seal with a tiger's head and a
diploma" (surely a lion's head, _P'aizah_ and _Yarligh_; see infra, Bk.
II. ch. vii. note 2), "wherein he was styled _Shin Sien_ or Divine
Anchorite." _Sian-jin_ again is the word used by Hiuen Tsang as the
equivalent to the name of the Indian _Rishis_, who attain to supernatural
powers.
["_Sensin_ is a sufficiently faithful transcription of _Sien-seng_
(Sien-shing in Pekingese); the name given by the Mongols in conversation as
well as in official documents, to the Tao-sze, in the sense of preceptors,
just as Lamas were called by them _Bacshi_, which corresponds to the
Chinese _Sien-seng_. M. Polo calls them fasters and ascetics. It was one of
the sects of Taouism. There was another one which practised cabalistic and
other mysteries. The Tao-sze had two monasteries in Shangtu, one in the
eastern, the other in the western part of the town." (_Palladius_, 30.)
--H.C.]
One class of the Tao priests or devotees does marry, but another class
never does. Many of them lead a wandering life, and derive a precarious
subsistence from the sale of charms and medical nostrums. They shave the
sides of the head, and coil the remaining hair in a tuft on the crown, in
the ancient Chinese manner; moreover, says Williams, they "_are recognised
by their slate-coloured robes_." On the feast of one of their divinities
whose title Williams translates as "High Emperor of the Sombre Heavens,"
they assemble before his temple, "and having made a great fire, about 15
or 20 feet in diameter, go over it barefoot, preceded by the priests and
bearing the gods in their arms. They firmly assert that if they possess a
sincere mind they will not be injured by the fire; but both priests and
people get miserably burnt on these occasions." Escayrac de Lauture says
that on those days they leap, dance, and whirl round the fire, striking at
the devils with a straight Roman-like sword, and sometimes wounding
themselves as the priests of Baal and Moloch used to do.
(_Astley_, IV. 671; _Morley_ in _J. R. A. S._ VI. 24; _Semedo_, 111, 114;
_De Mailla_, IX. 410; _J. As._ ser. V. tom. viii. 138; _Schott ueber den
Buddhismus_ etc. 71; _Voyage de Khieou_ in _J. As._ ser. VI. tom. ix. 41;
_Middle Kingdom_, II. 247; _Doolittle_, 192; _Esc. de Lauture, Mem. sur la
Chine, Religion_, 87, 102; _Peler. Boudd._ II. 370, and III. 468.)
Let us now turn to the _Bon-po_. Of this form of religion and its
sectaries not much is known, for it is now confined to the eastern and
least known part of Tibet. It is, however, believed to be a remnant of the
old pre-Buddhistic worship of the powers of nature, though much modified
by the Buddhistic worship with which it has so long been in contact. Mr.
Hodgson also pronounces a collection of drawings of Bonpo divinities,
which were made for him by a mendicant friar of the sect from the
neighbourhood of Tachindu, or Ta-t'sien-lu, to be saturated with _Sakta_
attributes, i.e. with the spirit of the Tantrika worship, a worship which
he tersely defines as "a mixture of lust, ferocity, and mummery," and
which he believes to have originated in an incorporation with the Indian
religions of the rude superstitions of the primitive Turanians. Mr.
Hodgson was told that the Bonpo sect still possessed numerous and wealthy
Vihars (or abbeys) in Tibet. But from the information of the Catholic
missionaries in Eastern Tibet, who have come into closest contact with the
sect, it appears to be now in a state of great decadence, "oppressed by
the Lamas of other sects, the _Peunbo_ (Bonpo) think only of shaking off
the yoke, and getting deliverance from the vexations which the smallness
of their number forces them to endure." In June, 1863, apparently from
such despairing motives, the Lamas of Tsodam, a Bonpo convent in the
vicinity of the mission settlement of Bonga in E. Tibet, invited the Rev.
Gabriel Durand to come and instruct them. "In this temple," he writes,
"are the _monstrous idols_ of the sect of Peunbo; horrid figures, whose
features only Satan could have inspired. They are disposed about the
enclosure according to their power and their seniority. Above the pagoda
is a loft, the nooks of which are crammed with all kinds of diabolical
trumpery; little idols of wood or copper, hideous masques of men and
animals, superstitious Lama vestments, drums, trumpets of human bones,
sacrificial vessels, in short, all the utensils with which the devil's
servants in Tibet honour their master. And what will become of it all? The
Great River, whose waves roll to Martaban (the Lu-kiang or Salwen), is not
more than 200 or 300 paces distant.... Besides the infernal paintings on
the walls, eight or nine monstrous idols, seated at the inner end of the
pagoda, were calculated by their size and aspect to inspire awe. In the
middle was _Tamba-Shi-Rob_, the great doctor of the sect of the Peunbo,
squatted with his right arm outside his red scarf, and holding in his left
the vase of knowledge.... On his right hand sat _Keumta-Zon-bo_, 'the All-
Good,' ... with ten hands and three heads, one over the other.... At his
right is _Dreuma_, the most celebrated goddess of the sect. On the left of
Tamba-Shi-Rob was another goddess, whose name they never could tell me. On
the left again of this anonymous goddess appeared _Tam-pla-mi-ber_,... a
monstrous dwarf environed by flames and his head garnished with a diadem
of skulls. _He trod with one foot on the head of Shakia-tupa_ [_Shakya
Thubba_, i.e. 'the Mighty Shakya,' the usual Tibetan appellation of Sakya
Buddha himself].... The idols are made of a coarse composition of mud and
stalks kneaded together, on which they put first a coat of plaster and
then various colours, or even silver or gold.... _Four oxen would scarcely
have been able to draw one of the idols_." Mr. Emilius Schlagintweit, in a
paper on the subject of this sect, has explained some of the names used by
the missionary. _Tamba-Shi-Rob_ is "_bs_tanpa _g_Shen-rabs," i.e. the
doctrine of Shen-rabs, who is regarded as the founder of the Bon religion.
[Cf. _Grenard_, II. 407.--H. C.] _Keun-tu-zon-bo_ is "Kun-tu-_b_zang-po,"
"_the All Best_."
[_Bon-po_ seems to be (according to Grenard, II. 410) a "coarse naturism
combined with ancestral worship" resembling Taoism. It has, however,
borrowed a good deal from Buddhism. "I noticed," says Mr. Rockhill
(_Journey_, 86), "a couple of grimy volumes of Boenbo sacred literature.
One of them I examined; it was a funeral service, and was in the usual
Boenbo jargon, three-fourths Buddhistic in its nomenclature." The Bon-po
Lamas are above all sorcerers and necromancers, and are very similar to
the _kam_ of the Northern Turks, the _bo_ of the Mongols, and lastly to
the _Shamans_. During their operations, they wear a tall pointed black
hat, surmounted by the feather of a peacock, or of a cock, and a human
skull. Their principal divinities are the White God of Heaven, the Black
Goddess of Earth, the Red Tiger and the Dragon; they worship an idol
called _Kye'-p'ang_ formed of a mere block of wood covered with garments.
Their sacred symbol is the _svastika_ turned from right to left [Symbol].
The most important of their monasteries is Zo-chen gum-pa, in the
north-east of Tibet, where they print most of their books. The Bonpos Lamas
"are very popular with the agricultural Tibetans, but not so much so with
the pastoral tribes, who nearly all belong to the Gelupa sect of the
orthodox Buddhist Church." A. K. says, "Buddhism is the religion of the
country; there are two sects, one named Mangba and the other Chiba or
Baimbu." _Explorations made by A----K----_, 34. _Mangba_ means "Esoteric,"
_Chiba_ (_p'yi-ba_), "Exoteric," and _Baimbu_ is Boenbo. _Rockhill,
Journey_, 289, _et passim.; Land of the Lamas_, 217-218; _Grenard, Mission
Scientifique_, II. 407 seqq.--H. C.]
There is an indication in Koeppen's references that the followers of the
_Bon_ doctrine are sometimes called in Tibet _Nag-choi_, or "Black Sect,"
as the old and the reformed Lamas are called respectively the "Red" and
the "Yellow." If so, it is reasonable to conclude that the first
appellation, like the two last, has a reference to the colour of clothing
affected by the priesthood.
The Rev. Mr. Jaeschke writes from Lahaul: "There are no Bonpos in our part
of the country, and as far as we know there cannot be many of them in the
whole of Western Tibet, i.e. in Ladak, Spiti, and all the non-Chinese
provinces together; we know, therefore, not much more of them than has
been made known to the European public by different writers on Buddhism in
Tibet, and lately collected by Emil de Schlagintweit.... Whether they can
be with certainty identified with the Chinese _Taosse_ I cannot decide, as
I don't know if anything like historical evidence about their Chinese
origin has been detected anywhere, or if it is merely a conclusion from
the similarity of their doctrines and practices.... But the Chinese author
of the _Wei-tsang-tu-Shi_, translated by Klaproth, under the title of
_Description du Tubet_ (Paris, 1831), renders _Bonpo_ by _Taosse_. So much
seems to be certain that it was the ancient religion of Tibet, before
Buddhism penetrated into the country, and that even at later periods it
several times gained the ascendancy when the secular power was of a
disposition averse to the Lamaitic hierarchy. Another opinion is that the
Bon religion was originally a mere fetishism, and related to or identical
with Shamanism; this appears to me very probable and easy to reconcile
with the former supposition, for it may afterwards, on becoming acquainted
with the Chinese doctrine of the 'Taosse,' have adorned itself with many
of its tenets.... With regard to the following particulars, I have got
most of my information from our Lama, a native of the neighbourhood of
Tashi Lhunpo, whom we consulted about all your questions. The
extraordinary asceticism which struck Marco Polo so much is of course not
to be understood as being practised by all members of the sect, but
exclusively, or more especially, by the _priests_. That these _never_
marry, and are consequently more strictly celibatary than many sects of
the Lamaitic priesthood, was confirmed by our Lama." (Mr. Jaeschke then
remarks upon the _bran_ to much the same effect as I have done above.)
"The Bonpos are by all Buddhists regarded as heretics. Though they worship
idols partly the same, at least in name, with those of the Buddhists,...
their rites seem to be very different. The most conspicuous and most
generally known of their customs, futile in itself, but in the eyes of the
common people the greatest sign of their sinful heresy, is that they
perform the religious ceremony of making a turn round a sacred object _in
the opposite direction_ to that prescribed by Buddhism. As to their dress,
our Lama said that they had no particular colour of garments, but their
priests frequently wore red clothes, as some sects of the Buddhist
priesthood do. Mr. Heyde, however, once on a journey in our neighbouring
county of Langskar, saw a man _clothed in black with blue borders_, who
the people said was a _Bonpo_."
[Mr. Rockhill (_Journey _, 63) saw at Kao miao-tzu "a _red_-gowned,
long-haired Boenbo Lama," and at Kumbum (p. 68), "was surprised to see quite
a large number of Boenbo Lamas, recognisable by their huge mops of hair and
their _red_ gowns, and also from their being dirtier than the ordinary run
of people."--H. C.]
The identity of the Bonpo and Taosse seems to have been accepted by Csoma
de Koroes, who identifies the Chinese founder of the latter, Lao-tseu, with
the Shen-rabs of the Tibetan Bonpos. Klaproth also says, "Bhonbp'o,
Bhanpo, and _Shen_, are the names by which are commonly designated (in
Tibetan) the Taoszu, or follower of the Chinese philosopher Laotseu."[11]
Schlagintweit refers to Schmidt's Tibetan Grammar (p. 209) and to the
Calcutta edition of the _Fo-koue-ki_ (p. 218) for the like identification,
but I do not know how far any two of these are independent testimonies.
General Cunningham, however, fully accepts the identity, and writes to me:
"Fahian (ch. xxiii.) calls the heretics who assembled at Ramagrama
_Taosse_,[12] thus identifying them with the Chinese Finitimists. The
Taosse are, therefore, the same as the _Swastikas_, or worshippers of the
mystic cross _Swasti_, who are also _Tirthakaras_, or 'Pure-doers.' The
synonymous word _Punya_ is probably the origin of _Pon_ or _Bon_, the
Tibetan Finitimists. From the same word comes the Burmese _P'ungyi_ or
_Pungi_." I may add that the Chinese envoy to Cambodia in 1296, whose
narrative Remusat has translated, describes a sect which he encountered
there, apparently Brahminical, as _Taosse_. And even if the Bonpo and the
Taosse were not fundamentally identical, it is extremely probable that the
Tibetan and Mongol Buddhists should have applied to them one name and
character. Each played towards them the same part in Tibet and in China
respectively; both were heretic sects and hated rivals; both made high
pretensions to asceticism and supernatural powers; both, I think we see
reason to believe, affected the dark clothing which Polo assigns to the
_Sensin_; both, we may add, had "great idols and plenty of them." We have
seen in the account of the Taosse the ground that certain of their
ceremonies afford for the allegation that they "sometimes also worship
fire," whilst the whole account of that rite and of others mentioned by
Duhalde,[13] shows what a powerful element of the old devil-dancing
Shamanism there is in their practice. The French Jesuit, on the other
hand, shows us what a prominent place female divinities occupied in the
Bon-po Pantheon,[14] though we cannot say of either sect that "their idols
are all feminine." A strong symptom of relation between the two religions,
by the way, occurs in M. Durand's account of the Bon Temple. We see there
that _Shen-rabs_, the great doctor of the sect, occupies a chief and
central place among the idols. Now in the Chinese temples of the Taosse
the figure of _their_ Doctor _Lao-tseu_ is one member of the triad called
the "Three Pure Ones," which constitute the chief objects of worship. This
very title recalls General Cunningham's etymology of Bonpo.
[Illustration: Tibetan Bacsi]
[At the quarterly fair (_yueh kai_) of Ta-li (Yun-Nan), Mr. E. C. Baber
(_Travels_, 158-159) says: "A Fakir with a praying machine, which he
twirled for the salvation of the pious at the price of a few cash, was at
once recognised by us; he was our old acquaintance, the Bakhsi, whose
portrait is given in _Colonel Yule's Marco Polo_."--H. C.]
(_Hodgson_, in _J. R. A. S._ XVIII. 396 seqq.; _Ann. de la Prop, de la
Foi_, XXXVI. 301-302, 424-427; _E. Schlagintweit, Ueber die Bon-pa Sekte
in Tibet_, in the _Sitzensberichte_ of the Munich Acad. for 1866, Heft I.
pp. 1-12; _Koeppen_, II. 260; _Ladak_, p. 358; _J. As._ ser. II. tom. i.
411-412; _Remusat. Nouv. Mel. Asiat._ I. 112; _Astley_, IV. 205;
_Doolittle_, 191.)
NOTE 18.--Pauthier's text has _blons_, no doubt an error for _blous_. In
the G. Text it is _bloies_. Pauthier interprets the latter term as "blond
ardent," whilst the glossary to the G. Text explains it as both _blue_ and
_white_. _Raynouard's Romance Dict._ explains _Bloi_ as "Blond." Ramusio
has _biave_, and I have no doubt that _blue_ is the meaning. The same word
(_bloie_) is used in the G. Text, where Polo speaks of the bright colours
of the Palace tiles at Cambaluc, and where Pauthier's text has "_vermeil
et jaune et vert_ et blou," and again (infra, Bk. II. ch. xix.), where the
two corps of huntsmen are said to be clad respectively in _vermeil_ and in
_bloie_. Here, again, Pauthier's text has _bleu_. The Crusca in the
description of the _Sensin_ omits the colours altogether; in the two other
passages referred to it has _bioda, biodo_.
["The Tao-sze, says Marco Polo, wear dresses of black and blue linen; i.e.
they wear dresses made of tatters of black and blue linen, as can be seen
also at the present day." (_Palladius_, 30.)--H. C.]
NOTE 19.--["The idols of the Tao-sze, according to Marco Polo's statement,
have female names; in fact, there are in the pantheon of Taoism a great
many female divinities, still enjoying popular veneration in China; such
are _Tow Mu_ (the 'Ursa major,' constellation), _Pi-hia-yuen Kiun_ (the
celestial queen), female divinities for lying-in women, for children, for
diseases of the eyes; and others, which are to be seen everywhere. The
Tao-sze have, besides these, a good number of male divinities, bearing the
title of _Kiun_ in common with female divinities; both these circumstances
might have led Marco Polo to make the above statement." (_Palladius_, p.
30.)--H. C.]
[1] This distance is taken from a tracing of the map prepared for Dr.
Bushell's paper quoted below. But there is a serious discrepancy
between this tracing and the observed position of Dolon-nor, which
determines that of Shang-tu, as stated to me in a letter from Dr.
Bushell. [See Note 1.]
[2] These particulars were obtained by Dr. Bushell through the
Archimandrite Palladius, from the MS. account of a Chinese traveller
who visited Shangtu about two hundred years ago, when probably the
whole inscription was above ground. The inscription is also mentioned
in the Imp. Geography of the present Dynasty, quoted by Klaproth. This
work gives the interior wall 5 _li_ to the side, instead of a _li_,
and the outer wall 10 _li_, instead of 4 _li_. By Dr. Bushell's
kindness, I give a reduction of his sketch plan (see _Itinerary Map_,
No. IV. at end of this volume), and also a plate of the heading of the
inscription. The translation of this is: "Monument conferred by the
Emperor of the August Yuen (Dynasty) in memory of His High Eminence
Yun Hien (styled) Chang-Lao (canonised as) Shou-Kung (Prince of
Longevity)." [See _Missions de Chine et du Congo_ No. 28, Mars, 1891,
Bruxelles.]
[3] Ramusio's version runs thus: "The palace presents one side to the
centre of the city and the other to the city wall. And from either
extremity of the palace where it touches the city wall, there runs
another wall, which fetches a compass and encloses a good 16 miles of
plain, and so that no one can enter this enclosure except by passing
through the palace."
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