The Travels of Marco Polo Volume 1 - Marco Polo and Rustichello of Pisa
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[4] This narrative, translated from Chinese into Russian by Father
Palladius, and from the Russian into English by Mr. Eugene Schuyler,
Secretary of the U.S. Legation at St. Petersburg, was obligingly sent
to me by the latter gentleman, and appeared in the _Geographical
Magazine_ for January, 1875, p. 7.
[5] See Bk. II. chap. xiv. note 3.
[6] In the first edition I had supposed a derivation of the Persian words
_Jadu_ and _Jadugari_, used commonly in India for conjuring, from the
Tartar use of _Yadah_. And Pallas says the Kirghiz call their witches
_Jadugar_. (_Voy._ II. 298.) But I am assured by Sir H. Rawlinson that
this etymology is more than doubtful, and that at any rate the Persian
(_Jadu_) is probably older than the Turkish term. I see that M. Pavet
de Courteille derives _Yadah_ from a Mongol word signifying "change of
weather," etc.
[7] [See W. Foerster's ed., _Halle_, 1887, p. 15, 386.--H. C.]
[8] A young Afghan related in the presence of Arthur Conolly at Herat that
on a certain occasion when provisions ran short the Russian General
gave orders that 50,000 men should be killed and served out as
rations! (I. 346.)
[9] Ar. _Tafir_, a sordid, squalid fellow.
[10] [Cf. Paulin Paris's ed., 1848, II. p. 5.--H. C.]
[11] _Shen_, or coupled with _jin_ "people," _Shenjin_, in this sense
affords another possible origin of the word _Sensin_; but it may in
fact be at bottom, as regards the first syllable, the same with the
etymology we have preferred.
[12] I do not find this allusion in Mr. Beal's new version of Fahian. [See
Remusat's ed. p. 227; Klaproth says (Ibid. p. 230) that the _Tao-szu_
are called in Tibetan _Bonbo_ and Youngdhroungpa.--H. C.]
[13] Apparently they had at their command the whole encyclopaedia of
modern "Spiritualists." Duhalde mentions among their sorceries the art
of producing by their invocations the figures of Lao-tseu and their
divinities in the air, and of _making a pencil to write answers to
questions without anybody touching it_.
[14] It is possible that this may point to some report of the mystic
impurities of the Tantrists. The _Saktian_, or Tantrists, according to
the Dabistan, hold that the worship of a female divinity affords a
greater recompense. (II. 155.)
BOOK SECOND.
(1.) ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT KAAN CUBLAY; OF HIS PALACES AND CAPITAL; HIS
COURT, GOVERNMENT, AND SPORTS.
(2.) CITIES AND PROVINCES VISITED BY THE TRAVELLER ON ONE JOURNEY WESTWARD
FROM THE CAPITAL TO THE FRONTIERS OF MIEN IN THE DIRECTION OF INDIA.
(3.) AND ON ANOTHER SOUTHWARD FROM THE CAPITAL TO FUCHU AND ZAYTON.
BOOK II.
PART I.--THE KAAN, HIS COURT AND CAPITAL.
CHAPTER I.
OF CUBLAY KAAN, THE GREAT KAAN NOW REIGNING, AND OF HIS GREAT PUISSANCE.
Now am I come to that part of our Book in which I shall tell you of the
great and wonderful magnificence of the Great Kaan now reigning, by name
CUBLAY KAAN; _Kaan_ being a title which signifyeth "The Great Lord of
Lords," or Emperor. And of a surety he hath good right to such a title,
for all men know for a certain truth that he is the most potent man, as
regards forces and lands and treasure, that existeth in the world, or ever
hath existed from the time of our First Father Adam until this day. All
this I will make clear to you for truth, in this book of ours, so that
every one shall be fain to acknowledge that he is the greatest Lord that
is now in the world, or ever hath been. And now ye shall hear how and
wherefore.[NOTE 1]
NOTE 1.--According to Sanang Setzen, Chinghiz himself discerned young
Kublai's superiority. On his deathbed he said: "The words of the lad
Kublai are well worth attention; see, all of you, that ye heed what he
says! One day he will sit in my seat and bring you good fortune such as
you have had in my day!" (p. 105).
The Persian history of Wassaf thus exalts Kublai: "Although from the
frontiers of this country ('Irak) to the Centre of Empire, the Focus of
the Universe, the genial abode of the ever-Fortunate Emperor and Just
Kaan, is a whole year's journey, yet the stories that have been spread
abroad, even in these parts, of his glorious deeds, his institutes, his
decisions, his justice, the largeness and acuteness of his intellect, his
correctness of judgment, his great powers of administration, from the
mouths of credible witnesses, of well-known merchants and eminent
travellers, are so surpassing, that one beam of his glories, one fraction
of his great qualities, suffices to eclipse all that history tells of the
Caesars of Rome, of the Chosroes of Persia, of the Khagans of China, of
the (Himyarite) Kails of Arabia, of the Tobbas of Yemen, and the Rajas of
India, of the monarchs of the houses of Sassan and Buya, and of the
Seljukian Sultans." (_Hammer's Wassaf_, orig. p. 37.)
Some remarks on Kublai and his government by a Chinese author, in a more
rational and discriminative tone, will be found below under ch. xxiii.,
note 2.
A curious Low-German MS. at Cologne, giving an account of the East, says
of the "Keyser von Kathagien--syn recht Name is der groisse _Hunt!_"
(Magnus Canis, the Big Bow-wow as it were. See _Orient und Occident_, vol.
i. p. 640.)
CHAPTER II.
CONCERNING THE REVOLT OF NAYAN, WHO WAS UNCLE TO THE GREAT KAAN CUBLAY.
Now this Cublay Kaan is of the right Imperial lineage, being descended
from Chinghis Kaan, the first sovereign of all the Tartars. And he is the
sixth Lord in that succession, as I have already told you in this book. He
came to the throne in the year of Christ, 1256, and the Empire fell to him
because of his ability and valour and great worth, as was right and
reason.[NOTE 1] His brothers, indeed, and other kinsmen disputed his
claim, but his it remained, both because maintained by his great valour,
and because it was in law and right his, as being directly sprung of the
imperial line.
Up to the year of Christ now running, to wit 1298, he hath reigned
two-and-forty years, and his age is about eighty-five, so that he must
have been about forty-three years of age when he first came to the
throne.[NOTE 2] Before that time he had often been to the wars, and had
shown himself a gallant soldier and an excellent captain. But after coming
to the throne he never went to the wars in person save once.[NOTE 3]
This befel in the year of Christ, 1286, and I will tell you why he went.
There was a great Tartar Chief, whose name was NAYAN,[NOTE 4] a young man
[of thirty], Lord over many lands and many provinces; and he was Uncle to
the Emperor Cublay Kaan of whom we are speaking. And when he found himself
in authority this Nayan waxed proud in the insolence of his youth and his
great power; for indeed he could bring into the field 300,000 horsemen,
though all the time he was liegeman to his nephew, the Great Kaan Cublay,
as was right and reason. Seeing then what great power he had, he took it
into his head that he would be the Great Kaan's vassal no longer; nay
more, he would fain wrest his empire from him if he could. So this Nayan
sent envoys to another Tartar Prince called CAIDU, also a great and potent
Lord, who was a kinsman of his, and who was a nephew of the Great Kaan and
his lawful liegeman also, though he was in rebellion and at bitter enmity
with his sovereign Lord and Uncle. Now the message that Nayan sent was
this: That he himself was making ready to march against the Great Kaan
with all his forces (which were great), and he begged Caidu to do likewise
from his side, so that by attacking Cublay on two sides at once with such
great forces they would be able to wrest his dominion from him.
And when Caidu heard the message of Nayan, he was right glad thereat, and
thought the time was come at last to gain his object. So he sent back
answer that he would do as requested; and got ready his host, which
mustered a good hundred thousand horsemen.
Now let us go back to the Great Kaan, who had news of all this plot.
NOTE 1.--There is no doubt that Kublai was proclaimed Kaan in 1260 (4th
month), his brother Mangku Kaan having perished during the seige of Hochau
in Ssechwan in August of the preceding year. But Kublai had come into
Cathay some years before as his brother's Lieutenant.
He was the _fifth_, not sixth, Supreme Kaan, as we have already noticed.
(Bk. I. ch. li. note 2.)
NOTE 2.--Kublai was born in the eighth month of the year corresponding to
1216, and had he lived to 1298 would have been eighty-two years old.
[According to Dr. E. Bretschneider (_Peking_, 30), quoting the _Yuen-Shi_,
Kublai died at Khanbaligh, in the Tze-t'an tien in February, 1294.--H. C.]
But by Mahomedan reckoning he would have been close upon eighty-five. He
was the fourth son of Tuli, who was the youngest of Chinghiz's four sons
by his favourite wife Burte Fujin. (See _De Mailla_, IX. 255, etc.)
NOTE 3.--This is not literally true; for soon after his accession (in
1261) Kublai led an army against his brother and rival Arikbuga, and
defeated him. And again in his old age, if we credit the Chinese annalist,
in 1289, when his grandson Kanmala (or Kambala) was beaten on the northern
frontier by Kaidu, Kublai took the field himself, though on his approach
the rebels disappeared.
Kublai and his brother Hulaku, young as they were, commenced their
military career on Chinghiz's last expedition (1226-1227). His most
notable campaign was the conquest of Yunnan in 1253-1254. (_De Mailla_,
IX. 298, 441.)
NOTE 4.--NAYAN was no "uncle" of Kublai's, but a cousin in a junior
generation. For Kublai was the grandson of Chinghiz, and Nayan was the
great-great-grandson of Chinghiz's brother Uchegin, called in the Chinese
annals Pilgutai. [Belgutai was Chinghiz's step-brother. (_Palladius_.)--H.
C.] On this brother, the great-uncle of Kublai, and the commander of the
latter's forces against Arikbuga in the beginning of the reign, both
Chinghiz and Kublai had bestowed large territories in Eastern Tartary
towards the frontier of Corea, and north of Liaotong towards the Manchu
country. ["The situation and limits of his appanage are not clearly
defined in history. According to Belgutai's biography, it was between the
Onon and Kerulen (_Yuen shi_), and according to Shin Yao's researches (_Lo
fung low wen kao_), at the confluence of the Argun and Shilka. Finally,
according to Harabadur's biography, it was situated in Abalahu, which
geographically and etymologically corresponds to modern Butkha (_Yuen
shi_); Abalahu, as Kublai himself said, was rich in fish; indeed, after
the suppression of Nayan's rebellion, the governor of that country used to
send to the Peking Court fishes weighing up to a thousand Chinese pounds
(_kin_.). It was evidently a country near the Amur River." (_Palladius_,
l.c. 31.)--H. C.] Nayan had added to his inherited territory, and become
very powerful. ["History has apparently connected Nayan's appanage with
that of Hatan (a grandson of Hachiun, brother of Chinghiz Khan), whose
_ordo_ was contiguous to Nayan's, on the left bank of the Amur,
hypothetically east of Blagovietschensk, on the spot, where still the
traces of an ancient city can be seen. Nayan's possessions stretched south
to Kwang-ning, which belonged to his appanage, and it was from this town
that he had the title of prince of Kwang-ning (_Yuen shi_)." (_Palladius_,
l.c. 31.)--H. C.] Kaidu had gained influence over Nayan, and persuaded him
to rise against Kublai. A number of the other Mongol princes took part
with him. Kublai was much disquieted at the rumours, and sent his great
lieutenant BAYAN to reconnoitre. Bayan was nearly captured, but escaped to
court and reported to his master the great armament that Nayan was
preparing. Kublai succeeded by diplomacy in detaching some of the princes
from the enterprise, and resolved to march in person to the scene of
action, whilst despatching Bayan to the Karakorum frontier to intercept
Kaidu. This was in the summer of 1287. What followed will be found in a
subsequent note (ch. iv. note 6). (For Nayan's descent, see the
Genealogical Table in the Appendix (A).)
CHAPTER III.
HOW THE GREAT KAAN MARCHED AGAINST NAYAN.
When the Great Kaan heard what was afoot, he made his preparations in
right good heart, like one who feared not the issue of an attempt so
contrary to justice. Confident in his own conduct and prowess, he was in
no degree disturbed, but vowed that he would never wear crown again if he
brought not those two traitorous and disloyal Tartar chiefs to an ill end.
So swiftly and secretly were his preparations made, that no one knew of
them but his Privy Council, and all were completed within ten or twelve
days. In that time he had assembled good 360,000 horsemen, and 100,000
footmen,--but a small force indeed for him, and consisting only of those
that were in the vicinity. For the rest of his vast and innumerable forces
were too far off to answer so hasty a summons, being engaged under orders
from him on distant expeditions to conquer divers countries and provinces.
If he had waited to summon all his troops, the multitude assembled would
have been beyond all belief, a multitude such as never was heard of or
told of, past all counting. In fact, those 360,000 horsemen that he got
together consisted merely of the falconers and whippers-in that were about
the court![NOTE 1]
And when he had got ready this handful (as it were) of his troops, he
ordered his astrologers to declare whether he should gain the battle and
get the better of his enemies. After they had made their observations,
they told him to go on boldly, for he would conquer and gain a glorious
victory: whereat he greatly rejoiced.
So he marched with his army, and after advancing for 20 days they arrived
at a great plain where Nayan lay with all his host, amounting to some
400,000 horse. Now the Great Kaan's forces arrived so fast and so suddenly
that the others knew nothing of the matter. For the Kaan had caused such
strict watch to be made in every direction for scouts that every one that
appeared was instantly captured. Thus Nayan had no warning of his coming
and was completely taken by surprise; insomuch that when the Great Kaan's
army came up, he was asleep in the arms of a wife of his of whom he was
extravagantly fond. So thus you see why it was that the Emperor equipped
his force with such speed and secrecy.
NOTE 1.--I am afraid Marco, in his desire to impress on his readers the
great power of the Kaan, is here giving the reins to exaggeration on a
great scale.
Ramusio has here the following explanatory addition:--"You must know that
in all the Provinces of Cathay and Mangi, and throughout the Great Kaan's
dominions, there are too many disloyal folk ready to break into rebellion
against their Lord, and hence it is needful in every province containing
large cities and much population, to maintain garrisons. These are
stationed four or five miles from the cities, and the latter are not
allowed to have walls or gates by which they might obstruct the entrance
of the troops at their pleasure. These garrisons as well as their
commanders the Great Khan causes to be relieved every two years; and
bridled in this way the people are kept quiet, and can make no
disturbance. The troops are maintained not only by the pay which the Kaan
regularly assigns from the revenues of each province, but also by the vast
quantities of cattle which they keep, and by the sale of milk in the
cities, which furnishes the means of buying what they require. They are
scattered among their different stations, at distances of 30, 40, or 60
days (from the capital); and had Cublay decided to summon but the half of
them, the number would have been incredible," etc.
[Palladius says (p. 37) that in the Mongol-Chinese documents, the Mongol
garrisons cantoned near the Chinese towns are mentioned under the name of
_Aolu_, but no explanation of the term is given.--H. C.]
The system of controlling garrisons, quartered at a few miles from the
great cities, is that which the Chinese followed at Kashgar, Yarkand, etc.
It is, in fact, our own system in India, as at Barrackpur, Dinapur,
Sikandarabad, Mian Mir.
CHAPTER IV.
OF THE BATTLE THAT THE GREAT KAAN FOUGHT WITH NAYAN.
What shall I say about it? When day had well broken, there was the Kaan
with all his host upon a hill overlooking the plain where Nayan lay in his
tent, in all security, without the slightest thought of any one coming
thither to do him hurt. In fact, this confidence of his was such that he
kept no vedettes whether in front or in rear; for he knew nothing of the
coming of the Great Kaan, owing to all the approaches having been
completely occupied as I told you. Moreover, the place was in a remote
wilderness, more than thirty marches from the Court, though the Kaan had
made the distance in twenty, so eager was he to come to battle with Nayan.
And what shall I tell you next? The Kaan was there on the hill, mounted on
a great wooden bartizan,[NOTE 1] which was borne by four well-trained
elephants, and over him was hoisted his standard, so high aloft that it
could be seen from all sides. His troops were ordered in battles of 30,000
men apiece; and a great part of the horsemen had each a foot-soldier armed
with a lance set on the crupper behind him (for it was thus that the
footmen were disposed of);[NOTE 2] and the whole plain seemed to be
covered with his forces. So it was thus that the Great Kaan's army was
arrayed for battle.
When Nayan and his people saw what had happened, they were sorely
confounded, and rushed in haste to arms. Nevertheless they made them ready
in good style and formed their troops in an orderly manner. And when all
were in battle array on both sides as I have told you, and nothing
remained but to fall to blows, then might you have heard a sound arise of
many instruments of various music, and of the voices of the whole of the
two hosts loudly singing. For this is a custom of the Tartars, that before
they join battle they all unite in singing and playing on a certain
two-stringed instrument of theirs, a thing right pleasant to hear. And so
they continue in their array of battle, singing and playing in this
pleasing manner, until the great Naccara of the Prince is heard to sound.
As soon as that begins to sound the fight also begins on both sides; and in
no case before the Prince's Naccara sounds dare any commence fighting.
[NOTE 3]
So then, as they were thus singing and playing, though ordered and ready
for battle, the great Naccara of the Great Khan began to sound. And that
of Nayan also began to sound. And thenceforward the din of battle began to
be heard loudly from this side and from that. And they rushed to work so
doughtily with their bows and their maces, with their lances and swords,
and with the arblasts of the footmen, that it was a wondrous sight to see.
Now might you behold such flights of arrows from this side and from that,
that the whole heaven was canopied with them and they fell like rain. Now
might you see on this side and on that full many a cavalier and man-at-
arms fall slain, insomuch that the whole field seemed covered with them.
From this side and from that such cries arose from the crowds of the
wounded and dying that had God thundered, you would not have heard Him!
For fierce and furious was the battle, and quarter there was none
given.[NOTE 4]
But why should I make a long story of it? You must know that it was the
most parlous and fierce and fearful battle that ever has been fought in
our day. Nor have there ever been such forces in the field in actual
fight, especially of horsemen, as were then engaged--for, taking both
sides, there were not fewer than 760,000 horsemen, a mighty force! and
that without reckoning the footmen, who were also very numerous. The
battle endured with various fortune on this side and on that from morning
till noon. But at the last, by God's pleasure and the right that was on
his side, the Great Khan had the victory, and Nayan lost the battle and
was utterly routed. For the army of the Great Kaan performed such feats of
arms that Nayan and his host could stand against them no longer, so they
turned and fled. But this availed nothing for Nayan; for he and all the
barons with him were taken prisoners, and had to surrender to the Kaan
with all their arms.
Now you must know that Nayan was a baptized Christian, and bore the cross
on his banner; but this nought availed him, seeing how grievously he had
done amiss in rebelling against his Lord. For he was the Great Kaan's
liegeman,[NOTE 5] and was bound to hold his lands of him like all his
ancestors before him.[NOTE 6]
NOTE 1.--"_Une grande_ bretesche." _Bretesche, Bertisca_ (whence old
English _Brattice_, and _Bartizan_), was a term applied to any boarded
structure of defence or attack, but especially to the timber parapets and
roofs often placed on the top of the flanking-towers in mediaeval
fortifications; and this use quite explains the sort of structure here
intended. The term and its derivative _Bartizan_ came later to be applied
to projecting _guerites_ or watch-towers of masonry. _Brattice_ in English
is now applied to a fence round a pit or dangerous machinery. (See
_Muratori_, _Dissert._ I. 334; _Wedgwood's Dict. of Etym._ sub. v.
_Brattice_; _Viollet le Duc_, by _Macdermott_, p. 40; _La Curne de
Sainte-Palaye, Dict._; _F. Godefroy, Dict._)
[John Ranking (_Hist. Res. on the Wars and Sports of the Mongols and
Romans_) in a note regarding this battle writes (p. 60): "It appears that
it is an old custom in Persia, to use four elephants a-breast." The Senate
decreed Gordian III. to represent him triumphing after the Persian mode,
with chariots drawn with four elephants. _Augustan Hist._ vol. ii. p. 65.
See plate, p. 52.--H. C.]
NOTE 2.--This circumstance is mentioned in the extract below from Gaubil.
He _may_ have taken it from Polo, as it is not in Pauthier's Chinese
extracts; but Gaubil has other facts not noticed in these.
[Elephants came from the Indo-Chinese Kingdoms, Burma, Siam, Ciampa.
--H. C.]
NOTE 3.--The specification of the Tartar instrument of two strings is
peculiar to Pauthier's texts. It was no doubt what Dr. Clarke calls "the
_balalaika_ or two-stringed lyre," the most common instrument among the
Kalmaks.
The sounding of the Nakkara as the signal of action is an old Pan-Asiatic
custom, but I cannot find that this very striking circumstance of the
whole host of Tartars playing and singing in chorus, when ordered for
battle and waiting the signal from the boom of the Big Drum, is mentioned
by any other author.
The _Nakkarah_ or _Nagarah_ was a great kettledrum, formed like a brazen
caldron, tapering to the bottom and covered with buffalo-hide--at least
3-1/2 or 4 feet in diameter. Bernier, indeed, tells of _Nakkaras_ in use at
the Court of Delhi that were not less than a fathom across; and Tod speaks
of them in Rajputana as "about 8 or 10 feet in diameter." The Tartar
Nakkarahs were usually, I presume, carried on a camel; but as Kublai had
begun to use elephants, his may have been carried on an elephant, as is
sometimes the case in India. Thus, too, P. della Valle describes those of
an Indian Embassy at Ispahan: "The Indian Ambassador was also accompanied
by a variety of warlike instruments of music of strange kinds, and
particularly by certain Naccheras of such immense size that each pair had
an elephant to carry them, whilst an Indian astride upon the elephant
between the two Naccheras played upon them with both hands, dealing strong
blows on this one and on that; what a din was made by these vast drums, and
what a spectacle it was, I leave you to imagine."
Joinville also speaks of the Nakkara as the signal for action: "So he was
setting his host in array till noon, and then he made those drums of
theirs to sound that they call _Nacaires_, and then they set upon us horse
and foot." The Great Nakkara of the Tartars appears from several Oriental
histories to have been called _Kurkah_. I cannot find this word in any
dictionary accessible to me, but it is in the _Ain Akbari_ (_Kawargah_) as
distinct from the _Nakkarah_. Abulfazl tells us that Akbar not only had a
rare knowledge of the science of music, but was likewise an excellent
performer--especially on the _Nakkarah!_
[Illustration: Nakkaras. (From a Chinese original.)]
The privilege of employing the Nakkara in personal state was one granted
by the sovereign as a high honour and reward.
The crusades naturalised the word in some form or other in most European
languages, but in our own apparently with a transfer of meaning. For
Wright defines _Naker_ as "a cornet or horn of brass." And Chaucer's use
seems to countenance this:--
"Pipes, Trompes, Nakeres, and Clariounes,
That in the Bataille blowen blody sounes."
--_The Knight's Tale_.
On the other hand, Nacchera, in Italian, seems always to have retained the
meaning of _kettle-drum_, with the slight exception of a local application
at Siena to a metal circle or triangle struck with a rod. The fact seems
to be that there is a double origin, for the Arabic dictionaries not only
have _Nakkarah_, but _Nakir_ and _Nakur_, "cornu, tuba." The orchestra of
Bibars Bundukdari, we are told, consisted of 40 pairs of kettle-drums, 4
drums, 4 hautbois, and 20 trumpets (_Nakir_). (_Sir B. Frere; Della
Valle_, II. 21; _Tod's Rajasthan_, I. 328; _Joinville_, p. 83; _N. et E._
XIV. 129, and following note; Blochmann's _Ain-i-Akbari_, pp. 50-51;
_Ducange_, by Haenschel, s.v.; _Makrizi_, I. 173.)
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