The Travels of Marco Polo Volume 1 - Marco Polo and Rustichello of Pisa
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[Illustration: Portrait of Kublai Kaan. (From a Chinese Engraving.)]
NOTE 1.--We are left in some doubt as to the colour of Kublai's eyes, for
some of the MSS. read _vairs_ and _voirs_, and others _noirs_. The former
is a very common epithet for eyes in the mediaeval romances. And in the
ballad on the death of St. Lewis, we are told of his son Tristram:--
"Droiz fu comme un rosel, _iex vairs comme faucon_,
Des le tens Moysel ne nasqui sa facon."
The word has generally been interpreted _bluish-grey_, but in the passage
just quoted, Fr.-Michel explains it by _brillans_. However, the evidence
for _noirs_ here seems strongest. Rashiduddin says that when Kublai was
born Chinghiz expressed surprise at the child's being so _brown_, as its
father and all his other sons were fair. Indeed, we are told that the
descendants of Yesugai (the father of Chinghiz) were in general
distinguished by blue eyes and reddish hair. (_Michel's Joinville_, p.
324; _D'Ohsson_, II. 475; _Erdmann_, 252.)
NOTE 2.--According to Hammer's authority (Rashid?) Kublai had _seven_
wives; Gaubil's Chinese sources assign him _five_, with the title of
empress (_Hwang-heu_). Of these the best beloved was the beautiful Jamui
Khatun (Lady or Empress Jamui, illustrating what the text says of the
manner of styling these ladies), who bore him four sons and five
daughters. Rashiduddin adds that she was called _Kun Ku_, or the great
consort, evidently the term _Hwang-heu_. (Gen. Tables in _Hammer's
Ilkhans_; _Gatibil_, 223; _Erdmann_, 200.)
["Kublai's four wives, i.e. the empresses of the first, second, third, and
fourth _ordos_. _Ordo_ is, properly speaking, a separate palace of the
Khan, under the management of one of his wives. Chinese authors translate
therefore the word _ordo_ by 'harem.' The four _Ordo_ established by
Chingis Khan were destined for the empresses, who were chosen out of four
different nomad tribes. During the reign of the first four Khans, who
lived in Mongolia, the four _ordo_ were considerably distant one from
another, and the Khans visited them in different seasons of the year; they
existed nominally as long as China remained under Mongol domination. The
custom of choosing the empress out of certain tribes, was in the course of
time set aside by the Khans. The empress, wife of the last Mongol Khan in
China, was a Corean princess by birth; and she contributed in a great
measure to the downfall of the Mongol Dynasty." (_Palladius_, 40.)
I do not believe that Rashiduddin's _Kun Ku_ is the term _Hwang-keu_; it
is the term _Kiun Chu_, King or Queen, a sovereign.--H. C.]
NOTE 3.--_Ungrat_, the reading of the Crusca, seems to be that to which
the others point, and I doubt not that it represents the great Mongol
tribe of KUNGURAT, which gave more wives than any other to the princes of
the house of Chinghiz; a conclusion in which I find I have been
anticipated by De Mailla or his editor (IX. 426). To this tribe (which,
according to Vambery, took its name from (Turki) _Kongur-At_, "Chestnut
Horse") belonged Burteh Fujin, the favourite wife of Chinghiz himself, and
mother of his four heirs; to the same tribe belonged the two wives of
Chagatai, two of Hulaku's seven wives, one of Mangku Kaan's, two at least
of Kublai's including the beloved Jamui Khatun, one at least of Abaka's,
two of Ahmed Tigudar's, two of Arghun's, and two of Ghazan's.
The seat of the Kungurats was near the Great Wall. Their name is still
applied to one of the tribes of the Uzbeks of Western Turkestan, whose
body appears to have been made up of fractions of many of the Turk and
Mongol tribes. Kungurat is also the name of a town of Khiva, near the Sea
of Aral, perhaps borrowed from the Uzbek clan.
The conversion of _Kungurat_ into _Ungrat_ is due, I suppose, to that
Mongol tendency to soften gutturals which has been before noticed.
(_Erdm._ 199-200; _Hammer, passim; Burnes_, III. 143, 225.)
The Ramusian version adds here these curious and apparently genuine
particulars:--
"The Great Kaan sends his commissioners to the Province to select four or
five hundred, or whatever number may be ordered, of the most beautiful
young women, according to the scale of beauty enjoined upon them. And they
set a value upon the comparative beauty of the damsels in this way. The
commissioners on arriving assemble all the girls of the province, in
presence of appraisers appointed for the purpose. These carefully survey
the points of each girl in succession, as (for example) her hair, her
complexion, eyebrows, mouth, lips, and the proportion of all her limbs.
They will then set down some as estimated at 16 carats, some at 17, 18,
20, or more or less, according to the sum of the beauties or defects of
each. And whatever standard the Great Kaan may have fixed for those that
are to be brought to him, whether it be 20 carats or 21, the commissioners
select the required number from those who have attained that standard, and
bring them to him. And when they reach his presence he has them appraised
anew by other parties, and has a selection made of 30 or 40 of those, who
then get the highest valuation."
Marsden and Murray miss the meaning of this curious statement in a
surprising manner, supposing the carat to represent some absolute value, 4
grains of gold according to the former, whence the damsel of 20 carats was
estimated at 13_s._ 4_d._! This is sad nonsense; but Marsden would not
have made the mistake had he not been fortunate enough to live before the
introduction of Competitive Examinations. This Kungurat business was in
fact a competitive examination in beauty; total marks attainable 24; no
candidate to pass who did not get 20 or 21. _Carat_ expresses _n_ / 24,
not any absolute value.
Apart from the mode of valuation, it appears that a like system of
selection was continued by the Ming, and that some such selection from the
daughters of the Manchu nobles has been maintained till recent times.
Herodotus tells that the like custom prevailed among the Adyrmachidae, the
Libyan tribe next Egypt. Old Eden too relates it of the "Princes of
Moscovia." (_Middle Km._ I. 318; _Herod._ IV. 168, Rawl.; _Notes on
Russia_, Hak. Soc. II. 253.)
CHAPTER IX.
CONCERNING THE GREAT KAAN'S SONS.
The Emperor hath, by those four wives of his, twenty-two male children;
the eldest of whom was called CHINKIN for the love of the good Chinghis
Kaan, the first Lord of the Tartars. And this Chinkin, as the Eldest Son
of the Kaan, was to have reigned after his father's death; but, as it came
to pass, he died. He left a son behind him, however, whose name is TEMUR,
and he is to be the Great Kaan and Emperor after the death of his
Grandfather, as is but right; he being the child of the Great Kaan's
eldest son. And this Temur is an able and brave man, as he hath already
proven on many occasions.[NOTE 1]
The Great Kaan hath also twenty-five other sons by his concubines; and
these are good and valiant soldiers, and each of them is a great chief. I
tell you moreover that of his children by his four lawful wives there are
seven who are kings of vast realms or provinces, and govern them well;
being all able and gallant men, as might be expected. For the Great Kaan
their sire is, I tell you, the wisest and most accomplished man, the
greatest Captain, the best to govern men and rule an Empire, as well as
the most valiant, that ever has existed among all the Tribes of
Tartars.[NOTE 2]
NOTE 1.--Kublai had a son older than CHIMKIN or CHINGKIM, to whom Hammer's
Genealogical Table gives the name of _Jurji_, and attributes a son called
Ananda. The Chinese authorities of Gaubil and Pauthier call him _Turchi_
or _Torchi_, i.e. _Dorje_, "Noble Stone," the Tibetan name of a sacred
Buddhist emblem in the form of a dumb-bell, representing the _Vajra_ or
Thunderbolt. Probably Dorje died early, as in the passage we shall quote
from Wassaf also Chingkim is styled the Eldest Son: Marco is probably
wrong in connecting the name of the latter with that of Chinghiz. Schmidt
says that he does not know what _Chingkim_ means.
[Mr. Parker says that Chen kim was the _third_ son of Kublai (_China
Review_, xxiv. p. 94.) Teimur, son of Chen kim, wore the temple name
(_miao-hao_) of _Ch'eng Tsung_ and the title of reign (_nien-hao_) of
_Yuen Cheng_ and _Ta Teh._--H. C.]
Chingkim died in the 12th moon of 1284-1285, aged 43. He had received a
Chinese education, and the Chinese Annals ascribe to him all the virtues
which so often pertain in history to heirs apparent who have not reigned.
"When Kublai approached his 70th year," says Wassaf, "he desired to raise
his eldest son Chimkin to the position of his representative and declared
successor, during his own lifetime; so he took counsel with the chiefs, in
view to giving the Prince a share of his authority and a place on the
Imperial Throne. The chiefs, who are the Pillars of Majesty and Props of
the Empire, represented that His Majesty's proposal to invest his Son,
during his own lifetime, with Imperial authority, was not in accordance
with the precedents and Institutes (_Yasa_) of the World-conquering
Padshah Chinghiz Khan; but still they would consent to execute a solemn
document, securing the Kaanship to Chimkin, and pledging themselves to
lifelong obedience and allegiance to him. It was, however, the Divine Fiat
that the intended successor should predecease him who bestowed the
nomination.... The dignitaries of the Empire then united their voices in
favour of TEIMUR, the son of Chimkin."
Teimur, according to the same authority, was the third son of Chimkin; but
the eldest, Kambala, _squinted_; the second, Tarmah (properly _Tarmabala_
for _Dharmaphala_, a Buddhist Sanskrit name) was rickety in constitution;
and on the death of the old Kaan (1294) Teimur was unanimously named to
the Throne, after some opposition from Kambala, which was put down by the
decided bearing of the great soldier Bayan. (_Schmidt_, p. 399; _De
Mailla_, IX. 424; _Gaubil_, 203; _Wassaf_, 46.)
[The Rev. W. S. Ament (_Marco Polo in Cambaluc_, p. 106), makes the
following remarks regarding this young prince (Chimkin): "The historians
give good reasons for their regard for Chen Chin. He had from early years
exhibited great promise and had shown great proficiency in the military
art, in government, history, mathematics, and the Chinese classics. He was
well acquainted with the condition and numbers of the inhabitants of
Mongolia and China, and with the topography and commerce of the Empire
(Howorth). He was much beloved by all, except by some of his father's own
ministers, whose lives were anything but exemplary. That Kublai had full
confidence in his son is shown by the fact that he put the collecting of
taxes in his hands. The native historians represent him as economical in
the use of money and wise in the choice of companions. He carefully
watched the officers in his charge, and would tolerate no extortion of the
people. After droughts, famines or floods, he would enquire into the
condition of the people and liberally supply their needs, thus starting
them in life again. Polo ascribes all these virtues to the Khan himself.
Doubtless he possessed them in greater or less degree, but father and son
were one in all these benevolent enterprises."--H. C.]
NOTE 2.--The Chinese Annals, according to Pauthier and Gaubil, give only
_ten_ sons to Kublai, at least by his legitimate wives; Hammer's Table
gives _twelve_. It is very probable that xxii. was an early clerical error
in the texts of Polo for xii. _Dodeci_ indeed occurs in one MS. (No. 37 of
our Appendix F), though not one of much weight.
Of these legitimate sons Polo mentions, in different parts of his work,
five by name. The following is the list from Hammer and D'Ohsson, with the
Chinese forms from Pauthier in parentheses. The seven whose names are in
capitals had the title of _Wang_ or "King" of particular territories, as
M. Pauthier has shown from the Chinese Annals, thus confirming Marco's
accuracy on that point.
I. Jurji or Dorje (Torchi). II. CHIMKIN or CHINGKIM (Yu Tsung, King of
Yen, i.e. Old Peking). III. MANGALAI (Mankola, "King of the Pacified
West"), mentioned by Polo (infra, ch. xli.) as King of Kenjanfu or Shensi.
IV. NUMUGAN (Numukan, "Pacifying King of the North"), mentioned by Polo
(Bk. IV. ch. ii.) as with King George joint leader of the Kaan's army
against Kaidu. V. Kuridai (not in Chinese List). VI. HUKAJI (Hukochi,
"King of Yunnan"), mentioned by Polo (infra, ch. xlix.) as King of
Carajan. VII. AGHRUKJI or UKURUJI (Gaoluchi, "King of Siping" or Tibet).
VIII. Abaji (Gaiyachi?). IX. KUKJU or GEUKJU (Khokhochu, "King of Ning" or
Tangut). X. Kutuktemur (Hutulu Temurh). XI. TUKAN (Thohoan, "King of
Chinnan"). His command lay on the Tungking frontier, where he came to
great grief in 1288, in consequence of which he was disgraced. (See
_Cathay_, p. 272.) XII. Temkan (not in Chinese List). Gaubil's Chinese
List omits _Hutulu Temurh_, and introduces a prince called _Gantanpouhoa_
as 4th son.
M. Pauthier lays great stress on Polo's intimate knowledge of the Imperial
affairs (p. 263) because he knew the name of the Hereditary Prince to be
Teimur; this being, he says, the private name which could not be known
until after the owner's death, except by those in the most confidential
intimacy. The public only then discovered that, like the Irishman's dog,
his real name was Turk, though he had always been called Toby! But M.
Pauthier's learning has misled him. At least the secret must have been
very badly kept, for it was known in Teimur's lifetime not only to Marco,
but to Rashiduddin in Persia, and to Hayton in Armenia; to say nothing of
the circumstance that the name _Temur Khaghan_ is also used during that
Emperor's life by Oljaitu Khan of Persia in writing to the King of France
a letter which M. Pauthier himself republished and commented upon. (See
his book, p. 780.)
CHAPTER X.
CONCERNING THE PALACE OF THE GREAT KAAN.
You must know that for three months of the year, to wit December, January,
and February, the Great Kaan resides in the capital city of Cathay, which
is called CAMBALUC, [and which is at the north-eastern extremity of the
country]. In that city stands his great Palace, and now I will tell you
what it is like.
It is enclosed all round by a great wall forming a square, each side of
which is a mile in length; that is to say, the whole compass thereof is
four miles. This you may depend on; it is also very thick, and a good ten
paces in height, whitewashed and loop-holed all round.[NOTE 1] At each
angle of the wall there is a very fine and rich palace in which the
war-harness of the Emperor is kept, such as bows and quivers,[NOTE 2]
saddles and bridles, and bowstrings, and everything needful for an army.
Also midway between every two of these Corner Palaces there is another of
the like; so that taking the whole compass of the enclosure you find eight
vast Palaces stored with the Great Lord's harness of war.[NOTE 3] And you
must understand that each Palace is assigned to only one kind of article;
thus one is stored with bows, a second with saddles, a third with bridles,
and so on in succession right round.[NOTE 4]
The great wall has five gates on its southern face, the middle one being
the great gate which is never opened on any occasion except when the Great
Kaan himself goes forth or enters. Close on either side of this great gate
is a smaller one by which all other people pass; and then towards each
angle is another great gate, also open to people in general; so that on
that side there are five gates in all.[NOTE 5]
Inside of this wall there is a second, enclosing a space that is somewhat
greater in length than in breadth. This enclosure also has eight palaces
corresponding to those of the outer wall, and stored like them with the
Lord's harness of war. This wall also hath five gates on the southern
face, corresponding to those in the outer wall, and hath one gate on each
of the other faces, as the outer wall hath also. In the middle of the
second enclosure is the Lord's Great Palace, and I will tell you what it
is like.[NOTE 6]
You must know that it is the greatest Palace that ever was. [Towards the
north it is in contact with the outer wall, whilst towards the south there
is a vacant space which the Barons and the soldiers are constantly
traversing.[NOTE 7] The Palace itself] hath no upper story, but is all on
the ground floor, only the basement is raised some ten palms above the
surrounding soil [and this elevation is retained by a wall of marble
raised to the level of the pavement, two paces in width and projecting
beyond the base of the Palace so as to form a kind of terrace-walk, by
which people can pass round the building, and which is exposed to view,
whilst on the outer edge of the wall there is a very fine pillared
balustrade; and up to this the people are allowed to come]. The roof is
very lofty, and the walls of the Palace are all covered with gold and
silver. They are also adorned with representations of dragons [sculptured
and gilt], beasts and birds, knights and idols, and sundry other subjects.
And on the ceiling too you see nothing but gold and silver and painting.
[On each of the four sides there is a great marble staircase leading to
the top of the marble wall, and forming the approach to the Palace.]
[NOTE 8]
The Hall of the Palace is so large that it could easily dine 6000 people;
and it is quite a marvel to see how many rooms there are besides. The
building is altogether so vast, so rich, and so beautiful, that no man on
earth could design anything superior to it. The outside of the roof also
is all coloured with vermilion and yellow and green and blue and other
hues, which are fixed with a varnish so fine and exquisite that they shine
like crystal, and lend a resplendent lustre to the Palace as seen for a
great way round.[NOTE 9] This roof is made too with such strength and
solidity that it is fit to last for ever.
[On the interior side of the Palace are large buildings with halls and
chambers, where the Emperor's private property is placed, such as his
treasures of gold, silver, gems, pearls, and gold plate, and in which
reside the ladies and concubines. There he occupies himself at his own
convenience, and no one else has access.]
Between the two walls of the enclosure which I have described, there are
fine parks and beautiful trees bearing a variety of fruits. There are
beasts also of sundry kinds, such as white stags and fallow deer, gazelles
and roebucks, and fine squirrels of various sorts, with numbers also of
the animal that gives the musk, and all manner of other beautiful
creatures,[NOTE 10] insomuch that the whole place is full of them, and no
spot remains void except where there is traffic of people going and
coming. [The parks are covered with abundant grass; and the roads through
them being all paved and raised two cubits above the surface, they never
become muddy, nor does the rain lodge on them, but flows off into the
meadows, quickening the soil and producing that abundance of herbage.]
From that corner of the enclosure which is towards the north-west there
extends a fine Lake, containing foison of fish of different kinds which
the Emperor hath caused to be put in there, so that whenever he desires
any he can have them at his pleasure. A river enters this lake and issues
from it, but there is a grating of iron or brass put up so that the fish
cannot escape in that way.[NOTE 11]
Moreover on the north side of the Palace, about a bow-shot off, there is a
hill which has been made by art [from the earth dug out of the lake]; it
is a good hundred paces in height and a mile in compass. This hill is
entirely covered with trees that never lose their leaves, but remain ever
green. And I assure you that wherever a beautiful tree may exist, and the
Emperor gets news of it, he sends for it and has it transported bodily
with all its roots and the earth attached to them, and planted on that
hill of his. No matter how big the tree may be, he gets it carried by his
elephants; and in this way he has got together the most beautiful
collection of trees in all the world. And he has also caused the whole
hill to be covered with the ore of azure,[NOTE 12] which is very green.
And thus not only are the trees all green, but the hill itself is all
green likewise; and there is nothing to be seen on it that is not green;
and hence it is called the GREEN MOUNT; and in good sooth 'tis named
well.[NOTE 13]
On the top of the hill again there is a fine big palace which is all green
inside and out; and thus the hill, and the trees, and the palace form
together a charming spectacle; and it is marvellous to see their
uniformity of colour! Everybody who sees them is delighted. And the Great
Kaan had caused this beautiful prospect to be formed for the comfort and
solace and delectation of his heart.
You must know that beside the Palace (that we have been describing), i.e.
the Great Palace, the Emperor has caused another to be built just like his
own in every respect, and this he hath done for his son when he shall
reign and be Emperor after him.[NOTE 14] Hence it is made just in the same
fashion and of the same size, so that everything can be carried on in the
same manner after his own death. [It stands on the other side of the lake
from the Great Kaan's Palace, and there is a bridge crossing the water
from one to the other.][NOTE 15] The Prince in question holds now a Seal
of Empire, but not with such complete authority as the Great Kaan, who
remains supreme as long as he lives.
Now I am going to tell you of the chief city of Cathay, in which these
Palaces stand; and why it was built, and how.
NOTE 1.--[According to the _Ch'ue keng lu_, translated by Bretschneider,
25, "the wall surrounding the palace ... is constructed of bricks, and is
35 _ch'i_ in height. The construction was begun in A.D. 1271, on the 17th
of the 8th month, between three and five o'clock in the afternoon, and
finished next year on the 15th of the 3rd month."--H. C.]
NOTE 2.--_Tarcasci_ (G. T.) This word is worthy of note as the proper form
of what has become in modern French _carquois_. The former is a transcript
of the Persian _Tarkash_; the latter appears to be merely a corruption of
it, arising perhaps clerically from the constant confusion of _c_ and _t_
in MSS. (See _Defremery_, quoted by Pauthier, _in loco._) [Old French
_tarquais_ (13th century), Hatzfeldt and Darmesteter's _Dict._ gives;
"Coivres orent ceinz et tarchais." (WACE, _Rou_, III., 7698; 12th
century).]
NOTE 3.--["It seems to me [Dr. Bretschneider] that Polo took the towers,
mentioned by the Chinese author, in the angles of the galleries and of the
Kung-ch'eng for palaces; for further on he states, that 'over each gate
[of Cambaluc] there is a great and handsome palace.' I have little doubt
that over the gates of Cambaluc, stood lofty buildings similar to those
over the gates of modern Peking. These tower-like buildings are called
_lou_ by the Chinese. It may be very likely, that at the time of Marco
Polo, the war harness of the Khan was stored in these towers of the palace
wall. The author of the _Ch'ue keng lu_, who wrote more than fifty years
later, assigns to it another place." (_Bretschneider, Peking_, 32.)
--H.C.]
[Illustration: IDEAL PLAN of the ANCIENT PALACES of the MONGOL EMPERORS AT
KHANBALIGH according to Dr. Bretschneider]
NOTE 4.--The stores are now outside the walls of the "Prohibited City,"
corresponding to Polo's Palace-Wall, but within the walls of the "Imperial
City." (_Middle Kingdom_, I. 61.) See the cut at p. 376.
NOTE 5.--The two gates near the corners apparently do not exist in the
Palace now. "On the south side there are three gates to the Palace, both
in the inner and the outer walls. The middle one is absolutely reserved
for the entrance or exit of the Emperor; all other people pass in and out
by the gate to the right or left of it." (_Trigautius_, Bk. I. ch. vii.)
This custom is not in China peculiar to Royalty. In private houses it is
usual to have three doors leading from the court to the guestrooms, and
there is a great exercise of politeness in reference to these; the guest
after much pressing is prevailed on to enter the middle door, whilst the
host enters by the side. (See _Deguignes, Voyages_, I. 262.) [See also _H.
Cordier's Hist. des Relat. de la Chine_, III. ch. x. _Audience
Imperiale_.]
["It seems Polo took the three gateways in the middle gate (_Ta-ming men_)
for three gates, and thus speaks of five gates instead of three in the
southern wall." (_Bretschneider, Peking_, 27, note.)--H. C.]
NOTE 6.--Ramusio's version here diverges from the old MSS. It makes the
inner enclosure a mile square; and the second (the city of Taidu) six
miles square, as here, but adds, at a mile interval, a third of eight
miles square. Now it is remarkable that Mr. A. Wylie, in a letter dated
4th December 1873, speaking of a recent visit to Peking, says: "I found
from various inquiries that there are several remains of a very much
larger city wall, inclosing the present city; but time would not allow me
to follow up the traces."
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