The Book of Household Management - Mrs. Isabella Beeton

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89. VARIOUS HERBS AND VEGETABLES are required for the purpose of making
soups and gravies. Of these the principal are,--Scotch barley, pearl
barley, wheat flour, oatmeal, bread-raspings, pease, beans, rice,
vermicelli, macaroni, isinglass, potato-mucilage, mushroom or mushroom
ketchup, champignons, parsnips, carrots, beetroot, turnips, garlic,
shalots, and onions. Sliced onions, fried with butter and flour till
they are browned, and then rubbed through a sieve, are excellent to
heighten the colour and flavour of brown soups and sauces, and form the
basis of many of the fine relishes furnished by the cook. The older and
drier the onion, the stronger will be its flavour. Leeks, cucumber, or
burnet vinegar; celery or celery-seed pounded. The latter, though
equally strong, does not impart the delicate sweetness of the fresh
vegetable; and when used as a substitute, its flavour should be
corrected by the addition of a bit of sugar. Cress-seed, parsley, common
thyme, lemon thyme, orange thyme, knotted marjoram, sage, mint, winter
savoury, and basil. As fresh green basil is seldom to be procured, and
its fine flavour is soon lost, the best way of preserving the extract is
by pouring wine on the fresh leaves.

90. FOR THE SEASONING OF SOUPS, bay-leaves, tomato, tarragon, chervil,
burnet, allspice, cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, clove, mace, black and white
pepper, essence of anchovy, lemon-peel, and juice, and Seville
orange-juice, are all taken. The latter imparts a finer flavour than the
lemon, and the acid is much milder. These materials, with wine, mushroom
ketchup, Harvey's sauce, tomato sauce, combined in various proportions,
are, with other ingredients, manipulated into an almost endless variety
of excellent soups and gravies. Soups, which are intended to constitute
the principal part of a meal, certainly ought not to be flavoured like
sauces, which are only designed to give a relish to some particular
dish.

SOUP, BROTH AND BOUILLON.

91. IT HAS BEEN ASSERTED, that English cookery is, nationally speaking,
far from being the best in the world. More than this, we have been
frequently told by brilliant foreign writers, half philosophers, half
_chefs_, that we are the _worst_ cooks on the face of the earth, and
that the proverb which alludes to the divine origin of food, and the
precisely opposite origin of its preparers, is peculiarly applicable to
us islanders. Not, however, to the inhabitants of the whole island; for,
it is stated in a work which treats of culinary operations, north of the
Tweed, that the "broth" of Scotland claims, for excellence and
wholesomeness, a very close second place to the _bouillon_, or common
soup of France. "_Three_ hot meals of broth and meat, for about the
price of ONE roasting joint," our Scottish brothers and sisters get,
they say; and we hasten to assent to what we think is now a very
well-ascertained fact. We are glad to note, however, that soups of
vegetables, fish, meat, and game, are now very frequently found in the
homes of the English middle classes, as well as in the mansions of the
wealthier and more aristocratic; and we take this to be one evidence,
that we are on the right road to an improvement in our system of
cookery. One great cause of many of the spoilt dishes and badly-cooked
meats which are brought to our tables, arises, we think, and most will
agree with us, from a non-acquaintance with "common, every-day things."
Entertaining this view, we intend to preface the chapters of this work
with a simple scientific _resume_ of all those causes and circumstances
which relate to the food we have to prepare, and the theory and
chemistry of the various culinary operations. Accordingly, this is the
proper place to treat of the quality of the flesh of animals, and
describe some of the circumstances which influence it for good or bad.
We will, therefore, commence with the circumstance of _age_, and examine
how far this affects the quality of meat.

92. DURING THE PERIOD BETWEEN THE BIRTH AND MATURITY OF ANIMALS, their
flesh undergoes very considerable changes. For instance, when the animal
is young, the fluids which the tissues of the muscles contain, possess a
large proportion of what is called _albumen_. This albumen, which is
also the chief component of the white of eggs, possesses the peculiarity
of coagulating or hardening at a certain temperature, like the white of
a boiled egg, into a soft, white fluid, no longer soluble, or capable of
being dissolved in water. As animals grow older, this peculiar animal
matter gradually decreases, in proportion to the other constituents of
the juice of the flesh. Thus, the reason why veal, lamb, and young pork
are _white, and without gravy_ when cooked, is, that the large quantity
of albumen they contain hardens, or becomes coagulated. On the other
hand, the reason why beef and mutton are _brown, and have gravy_, is,
that the proportion of albumen they contain, is small, in comparison
with their greater quantity of fluid which is soluble, and not
coagulable.

93. THE QUALITY OF THE FLESH OF AN ANIMAL is considerably influenced by
the nature of the _food on which it has been fed_; for the food supplies
the material which produces the flesh. If the food be not suitable and
good, the meat cannot be good either; just as the paper on which these
words are printed, could not be good, if the rags from which it is made,
were not of a fine quality. To the experienced in this matter, it is
well known that the flesh of animals fed on farinaceous produce, such as
corn, pulse, &c., is firm, well-flavoured, and also economical in the
cooking; that the flesh of those fed on succulent and pulpy substances,
such as roots, possesses these qualities in a somewhat less degree;
whilst the flesh of those whose food contains fixed oil, as linseed, is
greasy, high coloured, and gross in the fat, and if the food has been
used in large quantities, possessed of a rank flavour.

94. IT IS INDISPENSABLE TO THE GOOD QUALITY OF MEAT, that the animal
should be _perfectly healthy_ at the time of its slaughter. However
slight the disease in an animal may be, inferiority in the quality of
its flesh, as food, is certain to be produced. In most cases, indeed, as
the flesh of diseased animals has a tendency to very rapid putrefaction,
it becomes not only unwholesome, but absolutely poisonous, on account of
the absorption of the _virus_ of the unsound meat into the systems of
those who partake of it. The external indications of good and bad meat
will be described under its own particular head, but we may here premise
that the layer of all wholesome meat, when freshly killed, adheres
firmly to the bone.

95. ANOTHER CIRCUMSTANCE GREATLY AFFECTING THE QUALITY OF MEAT, is the
animal's treatment _before it is slaughtered_. This influences its value
and wholesomeness in no inconsiderable degree. It will be easy to
understand this, when we reflect on those leading principles by which
the life of an animal is supported and maintained. These are, the
digestion of its food, and the assimilation of that food into its
substance. Nature, in effecting this process, first reduces the food in
the stomach to a state of pulp, under the name of chyme, which passes
into the intestines, and is there divided into two principles, each
distinct from the other. One, a milk-white fluid,--the nutritive
portion,--is absorbed by innumerable vessels which open upon the mucous
membrane, or inner coat of the intestines. These vessels, or absorbents,
discharge the fluid into a common duct, or road, along which it is
conveyed to the large veins in the neighbourhood of the heart. Here it
is mixed with the venous blood (which is black and impure) returning
from every part of the body, and then it supplies the waste which is
occasioned in the circulating stream by the arterial (or pure) blood
having furnished matter for the substance of the animal. The blood of
the animal having completed its course through all parts, and having had
its waste recruited by the digested food, is now received into the
heart, and by the action of that organ it is urged through the lungs,
there to receive its purification from the air which the animal inhales.
Again returning to the heart, it is forced through the arteries, and
thence distributed, by innumerable ramifications, called capillaries,
bestowing to every part of the animal, life and nutriment. The other
principle--the innutritive portion--passes from the intestines, and is
thus got rid of. It will now be readily understood how flesh is affected
for bad, if an animal is slaughtered when the circulation of its blood
has been increased by over-driving, ill-usage, or other causes of
excitement, to such a degree of rapidity as to be too great for the
capillaries to perform their functions, and causing the blood to be
congealed in its minuter vessels. Where this has been the case, the meat
will be dark-coloured, and become rapidly putrid; so that self-interest
and humanity alike dictate kind and gentle treatment of all animals
destined to serve as food for man.

THE CHEMISTRY AND ECONOMY OF SOUP-MAKING.

96. STOCK BEING THE BASIS of all meat soups, and, also, of all the
principal sauces, it is essential to the success of these culinary
operations, to know the most complete and economical method of
extracting, from a certain quantity of meat, the best possible stock or
broth. The theory and philosophy of this process we will, therefore,
explain, and then proceed to show the practical course to be adopted.

97. AS ALL MEAT is principally composed of fibres, fat, gelatine,
osmazome, and albumen, it is requisite to know that the FIBRES are
inseparable, constituting almost all that remains of the meat after it
has undergone a long boiling.

98. FAT is dissolved by boiling; but as it is contained in cells covered
by a very fine membrane, which never dissolves, a portion of it always
adheres to the fibres. The other portion rises to the surface of the
stock, and is that which has escaped from the cells which were not
whole, or which have burst by boiling.

99. GELATINE is soluble: it is the basis and the nutritious portion of
the stock. When there is an abundance of it, it causes the stock, when
cold, to become a jelly.

100. OSMAZOME is soluble even when cold, and is that part of the meat
which gives flavour and perfume to the stock. The flesh of old animals
contains more _osmazome_ than that of young ones. Brown meats contain
more than white, and the former make the stock more fragrant. By
roasting meat, the osmazome appears to acquire higher properties; so, by
putting the remains of roast meats into your stock-pot, you obtain a
better flavour.

101. ALBUMEN is of the nature of the white of eggs; it can be dissolved
in cold or tepid water, but coagulates when it is put into water not
quite at the boiling-point. From this property in albumen, it is evident
that if the meat is put into the stock-pot when the water boils, or
after this is made to boil up quickly, the albumen, in both cases,
hardens. In the first it rises to the surface, in the second it remains
in the meat, but in both it prevents the gelatine and osmazome from
dissolving; and hence a thin and tasteless stock will be obtained. It
ought to be known, too, that the coagulation of the albumen in the meat,
always takes place, more or less, according to the size of the piece, as
the parts farthest from the surface always acquire _that degree_ of heat
which congeals it before entirely dissolving it.

102. BONES ought always to form a component part of the stock-pot. They
are composed of an earthy substance,--to which they owe their
solidity,--of gelatine, and a fatty fluid, something like marrow. _Two
ounces_ of them contain as much gelatine as _one pound_ of meat; but in
them, this is so incased in the earthy substance, that boiling water can
dissolve only the surface of whole bones. By breaking them, however, you
can dissolve more, because you multiply their surfaces; and by reducing
them to powder or paste, you can dissolve them entirely; but you must
not grind them dry. We have said (99) that gelatine forms the basis of
stock; but this, though very nourishing, is entirely without taste; and
to make the stock savoury, it must contain _osmazome_. Of this, bones do
not contain a particle; and that is the reason why stock made entirely
of them, is not liked; but when you add meat to the broken or pulverized
bones, the osmazome contained in it makes the stock sufficiently
savoury.

103. In concluding this part of our subject, the following condensed
hints and directions should be attended to in the economy of
soup-making:--

I. BEEF MAKES THE BEST STOCK; veal stock has less colour and taste;
whilst mutton sometimes gives it a tallowy smell, far from agreeable,
unless the meat has been previously roasted or broiled. Fowls add very
little to the flavour of stock, unless they be old and fat. Pigeons,
when they are old, add the most flavour to it; and a rabbit or partridge
is also a great improvement. From the freshest meat the best stock is
obtained.

II. IF THE MEAT BE BOILED solely to make stock, it must be cut up into
the smallest possible pieces; but, generally speaking, if it is desired
to have good stock and a piece of savoury meat as well, it is necessary
to put a rather large piece into the stock-pot, say sufficient for two
or three days, during which time the stock will keep well in all
weathers. Choose the freshest meat, and have it cut as thick as
possible; for if it is a thin, flat piece, it will not look well, and
will be very soon spoiled by the boiling.

III. NEVER WASH MEAT, as it deprives its surface of all its juices;
separate it from the bones, and tie it round with tape, so that its
shape may be preserved, then put it into the stock-pot, and for each
pound of meat, let there be one pint of water; press it down with the
hand, to allow the air, which it contains, to escape, and which often
raises it to the top of the water.

IV. PUT THE STOCK-POT ON A GENTLE FIRE, so that it may heat gradually.
The albumen will first dissolve, afterwards coagulate; and as it is in
this state lighter than the liquid, it will rise to the surface;
bringing with it all its impurities. It is this which makes _the scum_.
The rising of the hardened albumen has the same effect in clarifying
stock as the white of eggs; and, as a rule, it may be said that the more
scum there is, the clearer will be the stock. Always take care that the
fire is very regular.

V. REMOVE THE SCUM when it rises thickly, and do not let the stock boil,
because then one portion of the scum will be dissolved, and the other go
to the bottom of the pot; thus rendering it very difficult to obtain a
clear broth. If the fire is regular, it will not be necessary to add
cold water in order to make the scum rise; but if the fire is too large
at first, it will then be necessary to do so.

VI. WHEN THE STOCK IS WELL SKIMMED, and begins to boil, put in salt and
vegetables, which may be two or three carrots, two turnips, one parsnip,
a bunch of leeks and celery tied together. You can add, according to
taste, a piece of cabbage, two or three cloves stuck in an onion, and a
tomato. The latter gives a very agreeable flavour to the stock. If fried
onion be added, it ought, according to the advice of a famous French
_chef_, to be tied in a little bag: without this precaution, the colour
of the stock is liable to be clouded.

VII. BY THIS TIME we will now suppose that you have chopped the bones
which were separated from the meat, and those which were left from the
roast meat of the day before. Remember, as was before pointed out, that
the more these are broken, the more gelatine you will have. The best way
to break them up is to pound them roughly in an iron mortar, adding,
from time to time, a little water, to prevent them getting heated. It is
a great saving thus to make use of the bones of meat, which, in too many
English families, we fear, are entirely wasted; for it is certain, as
previously stated (No. 102), that two ounces of bone contain as much
gelatine (which is the nutritive portion of stock) as one pound of meat.
In their broken state tie them up in a bag, and put them in the
stock-pot; adding the gristly parts of cold meat, and trimmings, which
can be used for no other purpose. If, to make up the weight, you have
received from the butcher a piece of mutton or veal, broil it slightly
over a clear fire before putting it in the stock-pot, and be very
careful that it does not contract the least taste of being smoked or
burnt.

VIII. ADD NOW THE VEGETABLES, which, to a certain extent, will stop the
boiling of the stock. Wait, therefore, till it simmers well up again,
then draw it to the side of the fire, and keep it gently simmering till
it is served, preserving, as before said, your fire always the same.
Cover the stock-pot well, to prevent evaporation; do not fill it up,
even if you take out a little stock, unless the meat is exposed; in
which case a little boiling water may be added, but only enough to cover
it. After six hours' slow and gentle simmering, the stock is done; and
it should not be continued on the fire, longer than is necessary, or it
will tend to insipidity.

_Note_.--It is on a good stock, or first good broth and sauce, that
excellence in cookery depends. If the preparation of this basis of the
culinary art is intrusted to negligent or ignorant persons, and the
stock is not well skimmed, but indifferent results will be obtained. The
stock will never be clear; and when it is obliged to be clarified, it is
deteriorated both in quality and flavour. In the proper management of
the stock-pot an immense deal of trouble is saved, inasmuch as one
stock, in a small dinner, serves for all purposes. Above all things, the
greatest economy, consistent with excellence, should be practised, and
the price of everything which enters the kitchen correctly ascertained.
The _theory_ of this part of Household Management may appear trifling;
but its practice is extensive, and therefore it requires the best
attention.

[Illustration]

RECIPES.

CHAPTER VI.

FRUIT AND VEGETABLE SOUPS.

[_It will be seen, by reference to the following Recipes, that an
entirely original and most intelligible system has been pursued in
explaining the preparation of each dish. We would recommend the young
housekeeper, cook, or whoever may be engaged in the important task of
"getting ready" the dinner, or other meal, to follow precisely the order
in which the recipes are given. Thus, let them first place on their
table all the INGREDIENTS necessary; then the modus operandi, or MODE of
preparation, will be easily managed. By a careful reading, too, of the
recipes, there will not be the slightest difficulty in arranging a
repast for any number of persons, and an accurate notion will be gained
of the TIME the cooling of each dish will occupy, of the periods at
which it is SEASONABLE, as also of its_ AVERAGE COST.

_The addition of the natural history, and the description of the various
properties of the edible articles in common use in every family, will be
serviceable both in a practical and an educational point of view._

_Speaking specially of the Recipes for Soups, it may be added, that by
the employment of the_ BEST, MEDIUM, _or_ COMMON STOCK, _the quality of
the Soups and their cost may be proportionately increased or lessened._]

STOCKS FOR ALL KINDS OF SOUPS.

RICH STRONG STOCK.

104. INGREDIENTS.--4 lbs. of shin of beef, 4 lbs. of knuckle of veal,
3/4 lb. of good lean ham; any poultry trimmings; 3 small onions, 3 small
carrots, 3 turnips (the latter should be omitted in summer, lest they
ferment), 1 head of celery, a few chopped mushrooms, when obtainable; 1
tomato, a bunch of savoury herbs, not forgetting parsley; 1-1/2 oz. of
salt, 12 white peppercorns, 6 cloves, 3 small blades of mace, 4 quarts
of water.

_Mode_.--Line a delicately clean stewpan with the ham cut in thin broad
slices, carefully trimming off all its rusty fat; cut up the beef and
veal in pieces about 3 inches square, and lay them on the ham; set it on
the stove, and draw it down, and stir frequently. When the meat is
equally browned, put in the beef and veal bones, the poultry trimmings,
and pour in the cold water. Skim well, and occasionally add a little
cold water, to stop its boiling, until it becomes quite clear; then put
in all the other ingredients, and simmer very slowly for 5 hours. Do not
let it come to a brisk boil, that the stock be not wasted, and that its
colour may be preserved. Strain through a very fine hair sieve, or
tammy, and it will be fit for use.

_Time_.--5 hours. _Average cost_, 1s. 3d. per quart.

MEDIUM STOCK.

105. INGREDIENTS.--4 lbs. of shin of beef, or 4 lbs. of knuckle of veal,
or 2 lbs. of each; any bones, trimmings of poultry, or fresh meat, 1/2 a
lb. of lean bacon or ham, 2 oz. of butter, 2 large onions, each stuck
with 3 cloves; 1 turnip, 3 carrots, 1/2 a leek, 1 head of celery, 2 oz.
of salt, 1/2 a teaspoonful of whole pepper, 1 large blade of mace, 1
small bunch of savoury herbs, 4 quarts and 1/2 pint of cold water.

_Mode_.--Cut up the meat and bacon or ham into pieces about 3 inches
square; rub the butter on the bottom of the stewpan; put in 1/2 a pint
of water, the meat, and all the other ingredients. Cover the stewpan,
and place it on a sharp fire, occasionally stirring its contents. When
the bottom of the pan becomes covered with a pale, jelly-like substance,
add 4 quarts of cold water, and simmer very gently for 5 hours. As we
have said before, do not let it boil quickly. Skim off every particle of
grease whilst it is doing, and strain it through a fine hair sieve.

This is the basis of many of the soups afterwards mentioned, and will be
found quite strong enough for ordinary purposes.

_Time_.--5-1/2 hours. _Average cost_, 9d. per quart.

ECONOMICAL STOCK.

106. INGREDIENTS.--The liquor in which a joint of meat has been boiled,
say 4 quarts; trimmings of fresh meat or poultry, shank-bones, &c.,
roast-beef bones, any pieces the larder may furnish; vegetables, spices,
and the same seasoning as in the foregoing recipe.

_Mode_.--Let all the ingredients simmer gently for 6 hours, taking care
to skim carefully at first. Strain it off, and put by for use.

_Time_.--6 hours. _Average cost_, 3d. per quart.

WHITE STOCK.

(_To be Used in the Preparation of White Soups_.)

107. INGREDIENTS.--4 lbs. of knuckle of veal, any poultry trimmings, 4
slices of lean ham, 1 carrot, 2 onions, 1 head of celery, 12 white
peppercorns, 1 oz. of salt, 1 blade of mace, 1 oz. butter, 4 quarts of
water.

_Mode_.--Cut up the veal, and put it with the bones and trimmings of
poultry, and the ham, into the stewpan, which has been rubbed with the
butter. Moisten with 1/2 a pint of water, and simmer till the gravy
begins to flow. Then add the 4 quarts of water and the remainder of the
ingredients; simmer for 5 hours. After skimming and straining it
carefully through a very fine hair sieve, it will be ready for use.

_Time_.--5-1/2 hours. _Average cost_, 9d. per quart.

_Note_.--When stronger stock is desired, double the quantity of veal, or
put in an old fowl. The liquor in which a young turkey has been boiled,
is an excellent addition to all white stock or soups.

BROWNING FOR STOCK.

108. INGREDIENTS.--2 oz. of powdered sugar, and 1/2 a pint of water.

_Mode_.--Place the sugar in a stewpan over a slow fire until it begins
to melt, keeping it stirred with a wooden spoon until it becomes black,
then add the water, and let it dissolve. Cork closely, and use a few
drops when required.

_Note_.--In France, burnt onions are made use of for the purpose of
browning. As a general rule, the process of browning is to be
discouraged, as apt to impart a slightly unpleasant flavour to the
stock, and, consequently, all soups made from it.

TO CLARIFY STOCK.

109. INGREDIENTS.--The whites of 2 eggs, 1/2 pint of water, 2 quarts of
stock.

_Mode_.--Supposing that by some accident the soup is not quite clear,
and that its quantity is 2 quarts, take the whites of 2 eggs, carefully
separated from their yolks, whisk them well together with the water, and
add gradually the 2 quarts of boiling stock, still whisking. Place the
soup on the fire, and when boiling and well skimmed, whisk the eggs with
it till nearly boiling again; then draw it from the fire, and let it
settle, until the whites of the eggs become separated. Pass through a
fine cloth, and the soup should be clear.

_Note_.--The rule is, that all clear soups should be of a light straw
colour, and should not savour too strongly of the meat; and that all
white or brown thick soups should have no more consistency than will
enable them to adhere slightly to the spoon when hot. All _purees_
should be somewhat thicker.

ALMOND SOUP.

110. INGREDIENTS.--4 lbs. of lean beef or veal, 1/2 a scrag of mutton, 1
oz. of vermicelli, 4 blades of mace, 6 cloves, 1/2 lb. of sweet almonds,
the yolks of 6 eggs, 1 gill of thick cream, rather more than 2 quarts of
water.