The Book of Household Management - Mrs. Isabella Beeton
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558. THE OBJECTIONS WE HAVE RAISED to the practice of putting meat on
the fire in cold water, apply with equal force to the practice of
soaking meat before cooking it, which is so strongly recommended by some
cooks. Fresh meat ought never to be soaked, as all its most nutritive
constituents are soluble in water. Soaking, however, is an operation
that cannot be entirely dispensed with in the preparation of animal
food. Salted and dried meats require to be soaked for some time in water
before they are cooked.
559. FOR BOILING MEAT, the softer the water is, the better. When spring
water is boiled, the chalk which gives to it the quality of hardness, is
precipitated. This chalk stains the meat, and communicates to it an
unpleasant earthy taste. When nothing but hard water can be procured, it
should be softened by boiling it for an hour or two before it is used
for culinary purposes.
560. THE FIRE MUST BE WATCHED with great attention during the operation
of boiling, so that its heat may be properly regulated. As a rule, the
pot should be kept in a simmering state; a result which cannot be
attained without vigilance.
561. THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH WATER BOILS, under usual circumstances, is
212 deg. Fahr. Water does not become hotter after it has begun to boil,
however long or with whatever violence the boiling is continued. This
fact is of great importance in cookery, and attention to it will save
much fuel. Water made to boil in a gentle way by the application of a
moderate heat is just as hot as when it is made to boil on a strong fire
with the greatest possible violence. When once water has been brought to
the boiling point, the fire may be considerably reduced, as a very
gentle heat will suffice to keep the water at its highest temperature.
562. THE SCUM WHICH RISES to the surface of the pot during the operation
of boiling must be carefully removed, otherwise it will attach itself to
the meat, and thereby spoil its appearance. The cook must not neglect to
skim during the whole process, though by far the greater part of the
scum rises at first. The practice of wrapping meat in a cloth may be
dispensed with if the skimming be skillfully managed. If the scum be
removed as fast as it rises, the meat will be cooked clean and pure, and
come out of the vessel in which it was boiled, much more delicate and
firm than when cooked in a cloth.
563. WHEN TAKEN FROM THE POT, the meat must be wiped with a clean cloth,
or, what will be found more convenient, a sponge previously dipped in
water and wrung dry. The meat should not be allowed to stand a moment
longer than necessary, as boiled meat, as well as roasted, cannot be
eaten too hot.
564. THE TIME ALLOWED FOR THE OPERATION OF BOILING must be regulated
according to the size and quality of the meat. As a general rule, twenty
minutes, reckoning from the moment when the boiling commences, may be
allowed for every pound of meat. All the best authorities, however,
agree in this, that the longer the boiling the more perfect the
operation.
565. A FEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF SALTED MEAT may be
properly introduced in this place. Every housewife knows that dry salt
in contact with fresh meat gradually becomes fluid brine. The
application of salt causes the fibres of the meat to contract, and the
juice to flow out from its pores: as much as one-third of the juice of
the meat is often forced out in this manner. Now, as this juice is pure
extract of meat, containing albumen, osmazome, and other valuable
principles, it follows that meat which has been preserved by the action
of salt can never have the nutritive properties of fresh meat.
566. THE VESSELS USED FOR BOILING should be made of cast-iron, well
tinned within, and provided with closely-fitting lids. They must be kept
scrupulously clean, otherwise they will render the meat cooked in them
unsightly and unwholesome. Copper pans, if used at all, should be
reserved for operations that are performed with rapidity; as, by long
contact with copper, food may become dangerously contaminated. The
kettle in which a joint is dressed should be large enough to allow room
for a good supply of water; if the meat be cramped and be surrounded
with but little water, it will be stewed, not boiled.
567. IN STEWING, IT IS NOT REQUISITE to have so great a heat as in
boiling. A gentle simmering in a small quantity of water, so that the
meat is stewed almost in its own juices, is all that is necessary. It is
a method much used on the continent, and is wholesome and economical.
[Illustration: BOILING-POT.]
[Illustration: STEWPAN.]
Two useful culinary vessels are represented above. One is a
boiling-pot, in which large joints may be boiled; the other is a
stewpan, with a closely-fitting lid, to which is attached a long
handle; so that the cover can be removed without scalding the
fingers.
[Illustration: HOT-PLATE.]
568. THE HOT-PLATE is a modern improvement on the old kitchen ranges,
being used for boiling and stewing. It is a plate of cast iron, having a
closed fire burning beneath it, by which it is thoroughly well heated.
On this plate are set the various saucepans, stewpans, &c.; and, by this
convenient and economical method, a number of dishes may be prepared at
one time. The culinary processes of braising and stewing are, in this
manner, rendered more gradual, and consequently the substance acted on
becomes more tender, and the gravy is not so much reduced.
BROILING.
[Illustration: REVOLVING GRIDIRON.]
569. GENERALLY SPEAKING, small dishes only are prepared by this mode of
cooking; amongst these, the beef-steak and mutton chop of the solitary
English diner may be mentioned as celebrated all the world over. Our
beef-steak, indeed, has long crossed the Channel; and, with a view of
pleasing the Britons, there is in every _carte_ at every French
restaurant, by the side of _a la Marengo_, and _a la Mayonnaise,--bifteck
d'Angleterre_. In order to succeed in a broil, the cook must have a
bright, clear fire; so that the surface of the meat may be quickly heated.
The result of this is the same as that obtained in roasting; namely, that
a crust, so to speak, is formed outside, and thus the juices of the meat
are retained. The appetite of an invalid, so difficult to minister to, is
often pleased with a broiled dish, as the flavour and sapidity of the meat
are so well preserved.
570. THE UTENSILS USED FOR BROILING need but little description. The
common gridiron, for which see engraving at No. 68, is the same as it
has been for ages past, although some little variety has been introduced
into its manufacture, by the addition of grooves to the bars, by means
of which the liquid fat is carried into a small trough. One point it is
well to bear in mind, viz., that the gridiron should be kept in a
direction slanting towards the cook, so that as little fat as possible
may fall into the fire. It has been observed, that broiling is the most
difficult manual office the general cook has to perform, and one that
requires the most unremitting attention; for she may turn her back upon
the stewpan or the spit, but the gridiron can never be left with
impunity. The revolving gridiron, shown in the engraving, possesses some
advantages of convenience, which will be at once apparent.
FRYING.
[Illustration: SAUTE PAN.]
571. THIS VERY FAVOURITE MODE OF COOKING may be accurately described as
boiling in fat or oil. Substances dressed in this way are generally well
received, for they introduce an agreeable variety, possessing, as they
do, a peculiar flavour. By means of frying, cooks can soon satisfy many
requisitions made on them, it being a very expeditious mode of preparing
dishes for the table, and one which can be employed when the fire is not
sufficiently large for the purposes of roasting and boiling. The great
point to be borne in mind in frying, is that the liquid must be hot
enough to act instantaneously, as all the merit of this culinary
operation lies in the invasion of the boiling liquid, which carbonizes
or burns, at the very instant of the immersion of the body placed in it.
It may be ascertained if the fat is heated to the proper degree, by
cutting a piece of bread and dipping it in the frying-pan for five or
six seconds; and if it be firm and of a dark brown when taken out, put
in immediately what you wish to prepare; if it be not, let the fat be
heated until of the right temperature. This having been effected,
moderate the fire, so that the action may not be too hurried, and that
by a continuous heat the juices of the substance may be preserved, and
its flavour enhanced.
572. THE PHILOSOPHY OF FRYING consists in this, that liquids subjected
to the action of fire do not all receive the same quantity of heat.
Being differently constituted in their nature, they possess different
"capacities for caloric." Thus, you may, with impunity, dip your finger
in boiling spirits of wine; you would take it very quickly from boiling
brandy, yet more rapidly from water; whilst the effects of the most
rapid immersion in boiling oil need not be told. As a consequence of
this, heated fluids act differently on the sapid bodies presented to
them. Those put in water, dissolve, and are reduced to a soft mass; the
result being _bouillon_, stock, &c. (_see_ No. 103). Those substances,
on the contrary, treated with oil, harden, assume a more or less deep
colour, and are finally carbonized. The reason of these different
results is, that, in the first instance, water dissolves and extracts
the interior juices of the alimentary substances placed in it; whilst,
in the second, the juices are preserved; for they are insoluble in oil.
573. IT IS TO BE ESPECIALLY REMEMBERED, in connection with frying, that
all dishes fried in fat should be placed before the fire on a piece of
blotting-paper, or sieve reversed, and there left for a few minutes, so
that any superfluous greasy moisture may be removed.
574. THE UTENSILS USED FOR THE PURPOSES OF FRYING are confined to
frying-pans, although these are of various sizes; and, for small and
delicate dishes, such as collops, fritters, pancakes, &c., the _saute_
pan, of which we give an engraving, is used.
COOKING BY GAS.
[Illustration: GAS STOVE.]
575. GAS-COOKING can scarcely now be considered a novelty,--many
establishments, both small and large, have been fitted with apparatus
for cooking by this mode, which undoubtedly exhibits some advantages.
Thus the heat may be more regularly supplied to the substance cooking,
and the operation is essentially a clean one, because there can be no
cinders or other dirt to be provided for. Some labour and attention
necessary, too, with a coal fire or close stove, may be saved; and,
besides this, it may, perhaps, be said that culinary operations are
reduced, by this means, to something like a certainty.
576. THERE ARE, HOWEVER, WE THINK, MANY OBJECTIONS to this mode of
cooking, more especially when applied to small domestic establishments.
For instance, the ingenious machinery necessary for carrying it out,
requires cooks perfectly conversant with its use; and if the gas, when
the cooking operations are finished, be not turned off, there will be a
large increase in the cost of cooking, instead of the economy which it
has been supposed to bring. For large establishments, such as some of
the immense London warehouses, where a large number of young men have to
be catered for daily, it may be well adapted, as it is just possible
that a slight increase in the supply of gas necessary for a couple of
joints, may serve equally to cook a dozen dishes.
ROASTING.
577. OF THE VARIOUS METHODS OF PREPARING MEAT, ROASTING is that which
most effectually preserves its nutritive qualities. Meat is roasted by
being exposed to the direct influence of the fire. This is done by
placing the meat before an open grate, and keeping it in motion to
prevent the scorching on any particular part. When meat is properly
roasted, the outer layer of its albumen is coagulated, and thus presents
a barrier to the exit of the juice. In roasting meat, the heat must be
strongest at first, and it should then be much reduced. To have a good
juicy roast, therefore, the fire must be red and vigorous at the very
commencement of the operation. In the most careful roasting, some of the
juice is squeezed out of the meat: this evaporates on the surface of the
meat, and gives it a dark brown colour, a rich lustre, and a strong
aromatic taste. Besides these effects on the albumen and the expelled
juice, roasting converts the cellular tissue of the meat into gelatine,
and melts the fat out of the fat-cells.
578. IF A SPIT is used to support the meat before the fire, it should be
kept quite bright. Sand and water ought to be used to scour it with, for
brickdust and oil may give a disagreeable taste to the meat. When well
scoured, it must be wiped quite dry with a clean cloth; and, in spitting
the meat, the prime parts should be left untouched, so as to avoid any
great escape of its juices.
579. KITCHENS IN LARGE ESTABLISHMENTS are usually fitted with what are
termed "smoke-jacks." By means of these, several spits, if required, may
be turned at the same time. This not being, of course, necessary in
smaller establishments, a roasting apparatus, more economical in its
consumption of coal, is more frequently in use.
[Illustration: BOTTLE-JACK, WITH WHEEL AND HOOK.]
580. THE BOTTLE-JACK, of which we here give an illustration, with the
wheel and hook, and showing the precise manner of using it, is now
commonly used in many kitchens. This consists of a spring inclosed in a
brass cylinder, and requires winding up before it is used, and
sometimes, also, during the operation of roasting. The joint is fixed to
an iron hook, which is suspended by a chain connected with a wheel, and
which, in its turn, is connected with the bottle-jack. Beneath it stands
the dripping-pan, which we have also engraved, together with the
basting-ladle, the use of which latter should not be spared; as there
can be no good roast without good basting. "Spare the rod, and spoil the
child," might easily be paraphrased into "Spare the basting, and spoil
the meat." If the joint is small and light, and so turns unsteadily,
this may be remedied by fixing to the wheel one of the kitchen weights.
Sometimes this jack is fixed inside a screen; but there is this
objection to this apparatus,--that the meat cooked in it resembles the
flavour of baked meat. This is derived from its being so completely
surrounded with the tin, that no sufficient current of air gets to it.
It will be found preferable to make use of a common meat-screen, such as
is shown in the woodcut. This contains shelves for warming plates and
dishes; and with this, the reflection not being so powerful, and more
air being admitted to the joint, the roast may be very excellently
cooked.
[Illustration: DRIPPING-PAN AND BASTING-LADLE.]
581. IN STIRRING THE FIRE, or putting fresh coals on it, the
dripping-pan should always be drawn back, so that there may be no danger
of the coal, cinders, or ashes falling down into it.
582. UNDER EACH PARTICULAR RECIPE there is stated the time required for
roasting each joint; but, as a general rule, it may be here given, that
for every pound of meat, in ordinary-sized joints, a quarter of an hour
may be allotted.
[Illustration: HEAT-SCREEN.]
583. WHITE MEATS, AND THE MEAT OF YOUNG ANIMALS, require to be very well
roasted, both to be pleasant to the palate and easy of digestion. Thus
veal, pork, and lamb, should be thoroughly done to the centre.
584. MUTTON AND BEEF, on the other hand, do not, generally speaking,
require to be so thoroughly done, and they should be dressed to the
point, that, in carving them, the gravy should just run, but not too
freely. Of course in this, as in most other dishes, the tastes of
individuals vary; and there are many who cannot partake, with
satisfaction, of any joint unless it is what others would call
overdressed.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
QUADRUPEDS.
CHAPTER XII.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON QUADRUPEDS.
585. BY THE GENERAL ASSENT OF MANKIND, THE EMPIRE OF NATURE has been
divided into three kingdoms; the first consisting of minerals, the
second of vegetables, and the third of animals. The Mineral Kingdom
comprises all substances which are without those organs necessary to
locomotion, and the due performance of the functions of life. They are
composed of the accidental aggregation of particles, which, under
certain circumstances, take a constant and regular figure, but which are
more frequently found without any definite conformation. They also
occupy the interior parts of the earth, as well as compose those huge
masses by which we see the land in some parts guarded against the
encroachments of the sea. The Vegetable Kingdom covers and beautifies
the earth with an endless variety of form and colour. It consists of
organized bodies, but destitute of the power of locomotion. They are
nourished by means of roots; they breathe by means of leaves; and
propagate by means of seed, dispersed within certain limits. The Animal
Kingdom consists of sentient beings, that enliven the external parts of
the earth. They possess the powers of voluntary motion, respire air, and
are forced into action by the cravings of hunger or the parching of
thirst, by the instincts of animal passion, or by pain. Like the
vegetable kingdom, they are limited within the boundaries of certain
countries by the conditions of climate and soil; and some of the species
prey upon each other. Linnaeus has divided them into six
classes;--Mammalia, Birds, Fishes, Amphibious Animals, Insects, and
Worms. The three latter do not come within the limits of our domain; of
fishes we have already treated, of birds we shall treat, and of mammalia
we will now treat.
586. THIS CLASS OF ANIMALS embraces all those that nourish their young
by means of lacteal glands, or teats, and are so constituted as to have
a warm or red blood. In it the whale is placed,--an order which, from
external habits, has usually been classed with the fishes; but, although
this animal exclusively inhabits the water, and is supplied with fins,
it nevertheless exhibits a striking alliance to quadrupeds. It has warm
blood, and produces its young alive; it nourishes them with milk, and,
for that purpose, is furnished with teats. It is also supplied with
lungs, and two auricles and two ventricles to the heart; all of which
bring it still closer into an alliance with the quadrupedal species of
the animal kingdom.
587. THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MAMMALIA have been frequently
noticed. The bodies of nearly the whole species are covered with hair, a
kind of clothing which is both soft and warm, little liable to injury,
and bestowed in proportion to the necessities of the animal and the
nature of the climate it inhabits. In all the higher orders of animals,
the head is the principal seat of the organs of sense. It is there that
the eyes, the ears, the nose, and the mouth are placed. Through the last
they receive their nourishment. In it are the _teeth_, which, in most of
the mammalia, are used not only for the mastication of food, but as
weapons of offence. They are inserted into two movable bones called
jaws, and the front teeth are so placed that their sharp edges may
easily be brought in contact with their food, in order that its fibres
may readily be separated. Next to these, on each side, are situated the
canine teeth, or tusks, which are longer than the other teeth, and,
being pointed, are used to tear the food. In the back jaws are placed
another form of teeth, called grinders. These are for masticating the
food; and in those animals that live on vegetables, they are flattened
at the top; but, in carnivora, their upper surfaces are furnished with
sharp-pointed protuberances. From the numbers, form, and disposition of
the teeth, the various genera of quadrupeds have been arranged. The
_nose_ is a cartilaginous body, pierced with two holes, which are called
nostrils. Through these the animal is affected by the sense of smell;
and in some it is prominent, whilst in others it is flat, compressed,
turned upwards, or bent downwards. In beasts of prey, it is frequently
longer than the lips; and in some other animals it is elongated into a
movable trunk or proboscis, whilst, in the rhinoceros tribe, it is armed
with a horn. The _eyes_ of quadrupeds are generally defended by movable
lids, on the outer margins of which are fringes of hair, called
eyelashes. The opening of the pupil is in general circular; but to some
species, as in those of the Cat and Hare, it is contracted into a
perpendicular line, whilst in the Horse, the Ox, and a few others, it
forms a transverse bar. The _ears_ are openings, generally accompanied
with a cartilage which defends and covers them, called the external
ears. In water-animals the latter are wanting; sound, in them, being
transmitted merely through orifices in the head, which have the name of
auditory-holes. The most defenceless animals are extremely delicate in
the sense of hearing, as are likewise most beasts of prey. Most of the
mammiferous animals _walk_ on four feet, which, at the extremities, are
usually divided into toes or fingers. In some, however, the feet end in
a single corneous substance called a hoof. The toes of a few end in
broad, flat nails, and of most others, in pointed claws. Some, again,
have the toes connected by a membrane, which is adapted to those that
are destined to pass a considerable portion of their lives in water.
Others, again, as in the Bat, have the digitations of the anterior feet
greatly elongated, the intervening space being filled by a membrane,
which extends round the hinder legs and tail, and by means of which they
are enabled to rise into the air. In Man, the hand alone comprises
fingers, separate, free, and flexible; but Apes, and some other kinds of
animals, have fingers both to the hands and feet. These, therefore, are
the only animals that can hold movable objects in a single hand. Others,
such as Rats and Squirrels, have the fingers sufficiently small and
flexible to enable them to pick up objects; but they are compelled to
hold them in both hands. Others, again, have the toes shorter, and must
rest on the fore-feet, as is the case with dogs and cats when they wish
to hold a substance firmly on the ground with their paws. There are
still others that have their toes united and drawn under the skin, or
enveloped in corneous hoofs, and are thereby enabled to exercise no
prehensile power whatever.
588. ACCORDING TO THE DESIGN AND END OF NATURE, mammiferous animals are
calculated, when arrived at maturity, to subsist on various kinds of
food,--some to live wholly upon flesh, others upon grain, herbs, or
fruits; but in their infant state, milk is the appropriate food of the
whole. That this food may never fail them, it is universally ordained,
that the young should no sooner come into the world, than the milk
should flow in abundance into the members with which the mother is
supplied for the secretion of that nutritious fluid. By a wonderful
instinct of Nature, too, the young animal, almost as soon as it has come
into life, searches for the teat, and knows perfectly, at the first,
how, by the process of suction, it will be able to extract the fluid
necessary to its existence.
589. IN THE GENERAL ECONOMY OF NATURE, this class of animals seems
destined to preserve a constant equilibrium in the number of animated
beings that hold their existence on the surface of the earth. To man
they are immediately useful in various ways. Some of their bodies afford
him food, their skin shoes, and their fleece clothes. Some of them unite
with him in participating the dangers of combat with an enemy, and
others assist him in the chase, in exterminating wilder sorts, or
banishing them from the haunts of civilization. Many, indeed, are
injurious to him; but most of them, in some shape or other, he turns to
his service. Of these there is none he has made more subservient to his
purposes than the common ox, of which there is scarcely a part that he
has not been able to convert into some useful purpose. Of the horns he
makes drinking-vessels, knife-handles, combs, and boxes; and when they
are softened by means of boiling water, he fashions them into
transparent plates for lanterns. This invention is ascribed to King
Alfred, who is said to have been the first to use them to preserve his
candle time-measures from the wind. Glue is made of the cartilages,
gristles, and the finer pieces of the parings and cuttings of the hides.
Their bone is a cheap substitute for ivory. The thinnest of the
calf-skins are manufactured into vellum. Their blood is made the basis
of Prussian blue, and saddlers use a fine sort of thread prepared from
their sinews. The hair is used in various valuable manufactures; the
suet, fat, and tallow, are moulded into candles; and the milk and cream
of the cow yield butter and cheese. Thus is every part of this animal
valuable to man, who has spared no pains to bring it to the highest
state of perfection.
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