The Book of Household Management - Mrs. Isabella Beeton

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[Illustration]

CHAPTER II.

THE HOUSEKEEPER.

55. AS SECOND IN COMMAND IN THE HOUSE, except in large establishments,
where there is a house steward, the housekeeper must consider herself as
the immediate representative of her mistress, and bring, to the
management of the household, all those qualities of honesty, industry,
and vigilance, in the same degree as if she were at the head of her
_own_ family. Constantly on the watch to detect any wrong-doing on the
part of any of the domestics, she will overlook all that goes on in the
house, and will see that every department is thoroughly attended to, and
that the servants are comfortable, at the same time that their various
duties are properly performed.

Cleanliness, punctuality, order, and method, are essentials in
the character of a good housekeeper. Without the first, no
household can be said to be well managed. The second is equally
all-important; for those who are under the housekeeper will take
their "cue" from her; and in the same proportion as punctuality
governs her movements, so will it theirs. Order, again, is
indispensable; for by it we wish to be understood that "there
should be a place for everything, and everything in its place."
Method, too, is most necessary; for when the work is properly
contrived, and each part arranged in regular succession, it will
be done more quickly and more effectually.

56. A NECESSARY QUALIFICATION FOR A HOUSEKEEPER is, that she should
thoroughly understand accounts. She will have to write in her books an
accurate registry of all sums paid for any and every purpose, all the
current expenses of the house, tradesmen's bills, and other extraneous
matter. As we have mentioned under the head of the Mistress (_see_ 16),
a housekeeper's accounts should be periodically balanced, and examined
by the head of the house. Nothing tends more to the satisfaction of both
employer and employed, than this arrangement. "Short reckonings make
long friends," stands good in this case, as in others.

It will be found an excellent plan to take an account of every
article which comes into the house connected with housekeeping,
and is not paid for at the time. The book containing these
entries can then be compared with the bills sent in by the
various tradesmen, so that any discrepancy can be inquired into
and set right. An intelligent housekeeper will, by this means,
too, be better able to judge of the average consumption of each
article by the household; and if that quantity be, at any time,
exceeded, the cause may be discovered and rectified, if it
proceed from waste or carelessness.

57. ALTHOUGH IN THE DEPARTMENT OF THE COOK, the housekeeper does not
generally much interfere, yet it is necessary that she should possess a
good knowledge of the culinary art, as, in many instances, it may be
requisite for her to take the superintendence of the kitchen. As a rule,
it may be stated, that the housekeeper, in those establishments where
there is no house steward or man cook, undertakes the preparation of the
confectionary, attends to the preserving and pickling of fruits and
vegetables; and, in a general way, to the more difficult branches of the
art of cookery.

Much of these arrangements will depend, however, on the
qualifications of the cook; for instance, if she be an able
artiste, there will be but little necessity for the housekeeper
to interfere, except in the already noticed articles of
confectionary, &c. On the contrary, if the cook be not so clever
an adept in her art, then it will be requisite for the
housekeeper to give more of her attention to the business of the
kitchen, than in the former case. It will be one of the duties
of the housekeeper to attend to the marketing, in the absence of
either a house steward or man cook.

58. THE DAILY DUTIES OF A HOUSEKEEPER are regulated, in a great measure,
by the extent of the establishment she superintends. She should,
however, rise early, and see that all the domestics are duly performing
their work, and that everything is progressing satisfactorily for the
preparation of the breakfast for the household and family. After
breakfast, which, in large establishments, she will take in the
"housekeeper's room" with the lady's-maid, butler, and valet, and where
they will be waited on by the still-room maid, she will, on various days
set apart for each purpose, carefully examine the household linen, with
a view to its being repaired, or to a further quantity being put in hand
to be made; she will also see that the furniture throughout the house is
well rubbed and polished; and will, besides, attend to all the necessary
details of marketing and ordering goods from the tradesmen.

The housekeeper's room is generally made use of by the
lady's-maid, butler, and valet, who take there their breakfast,
tea, and supper. The lady's-maid will also use this apartment as
a sitting-room, when not engaged with her lady, or with some
other duties, which would call her elsewhere. In different
establishments, according to their size and the rank of the
family, different rules of course prevail. For instance, in the
mansions of those of very high rank, and where there is a house
steward, there are two distinct tables kept, one in the
steward's room for the principal members of the household, the
other in the servants' hall, for the other domestics. At the
steward's dinner-table, the steward and housekeeper preside; and
here, also, are present the lady's-maid, butler, valet, and head
gardener. Should any visitors be staying with the family, their
servants, generally the valet and lady's-maid, will be admitted
to the steward's table.

59. AFTER DINNER, the housekeeper, having seen that all the members of
the establishment have regularly returned to their various duties, and
that all the departments of the household are in proper working order,
will have many important matters claiming her attention. She will,
possibly, have to give the finishing touch to some article of
confectionary, or be occupied with some of the more elaborate processes
of the still-room. There may also be the dessert to arrange, ice-creams
to make; and all these employments call for no ordinary degree of care,
taste, and attention.

The still-room was formerly much more in vogue than at present;
for in days of "auld lang syne," the still was in constant
requisition for the supply of sweet-flavoured waters for the
purposes of cookery, scents and aromatic substances used in the
preparation of the toilet, and cordials in cases of accidents
and illness. There are some establishments, however, in which
distillation is still carried on, and in these, the still-room
maid has her old duties to perform. In a general way, however,
this domestic is immediately concerned with the housekeeper. For
the latter she lights the fire, dusts her room, prepares the
breakfast-table, and waits at the different meals taken in the
housekeeper's room (_see_ 58). A still-room maid may learn a
very great deal of useful knowledge from her intimate connection
with the housekeeper, and if she be active and intelligent, may
soon fit herself for a better position in the household.

60. IN THE EVENING, the housekeeper will often busy herself with the
necessary preparations for the next day's duties. Numberless small, but
still important arrangements, will have to be made, so that everything
may move smoothly. At times, perhaps, attention will have to be paid to
the breaking of lump-sugar, the stoning of raisins, the washing,
cleansing, and drying of currants, &c. The evening, too, is the best
time for setting right her account of the expenditure, and duly writing
a statement of moneys received and paid, and also for making memoranda
of any articles she may require for her storeroom or other departments.

Periodically, at some convenient time,--for instance, quarterly
or half-yearly, it is a good plan for the housekeeper to make an
inventory of everything she has under her care, and compare this
with the lists of a former period; she will then be able to
furnish a statement, if necessary, of the articles which, on
account of time, breakage, loss, or other causes, it has been
necessary to replace or replenish.

61. IN CONCLUDING THESE REMARKS on the duties of the housekeeper, we
will briefly refer to the very great responsibility which attaches to
her position. Like "Caesar's wife," she should be "above suspicion," and
her honesty and sobriety unquestionable; for there are many temptations
to which she is exposed. In a physical point of view, a housekeeper
should be healthy and strong, and be particularly clean in her person,
and her hands, although they may show a degree of roughness, from the
nature of some of her employments, yet should have a nice inviting
appearance. In her dealings with the various tradesmen, and in her
behaviour to the domestics under her, the demeanour and conduct of the
housekeeper should be such as, in neither case, to diminish, by an undue
familiarity, her authority or influence.

_Note_.--It will be useful for the mistress and housekeeper to know the
best seasons for various occupations connected with Household
Management; and we, accordingly, subjoin a few hints which we think will
prove valuable.

As, in the winter months, servants have much more to do, in consequence
of the necessity there is to attend to the number of fires throughout
the household, not much more than the ordinary every-day work can be
attempted.

In the summer, and when the absence of fires gives the domestics more
leisure, then any extra work that is required, can be more easily
performed.

The spring is the usual period set apart for house-cleaning, and
removing all the dust and dirt, which will necessarily, with the best of
housewives, accumulate during the winter months, from the smoke of the
coal, oil, gas, &c. This season is also well adapted for washing and
bleaching linen, &c., as, the weather, not being then too hot for the
exertions necessary in washing counterpanes, blankets, and heavy things
in general, the work is better and more easily done than in the intense
heats of July, which month some recommend for these purposes. Winter
curtains should be taken down, and replaced by the summer white ones;
and furs and woollen cloths also carefully laid by. The former should be
well shaken and brushed, and then pinned upon paper or linen, with
camphor to preserve them from the moths. Furs, &c., will be preserved in
the same way. Included, under the general description of house-cleaning,
must be understood, turning out all the nooks and corners of drawers,
cupboards, lumber-rooms, lofts, &c., with a view of getting rid of all
unnecessary articles, which only create dirt and attract vermin;
sweeping of chimneys, taking up carpets, painting and whitewashing the
kitchen and offices, papering rooms, when needed, and, generally
speaking, the house putting on, with the approaching summer, a bright
appearance, and a new face, in unison with nature. Oranges now should be
preserved, and orange wine made.

The summer will be found, as we have mentioned above, in consequence of
the diminution of labour for the domestics, the best period for
examining and repairing household linen, and for "putting to rights" all
those articles which have received a large share of wear and tear during
the dark winter days. In direct reference to this matter, we may here
remark, that sheets should be turned "sides to middle" before they are
allowed to get very thin. Otherwise, patching, which is uneconomical
from the time it consumes, and is unsightly in point of appearance, will
have to be resorted to. In June and July, gooseberries, currants,
raspberries, strawberries, and other summer fruits, should be preserved,
and jams and jellies made. In July, too, the making of walnut ketchup
should be attended to, as the green walnuts will be approaching
perfection for this purpose. Mixed pickles may also be now made, and it
will be found a good plan to have ready a jar of pickle-juice (for the
making of which all information will be given in future pages), into
which to put occasionally some young French beans, cauliflowers, &c.

In the early autumn, plums of various kinds are to be bottled and
preserved, and jams and jellies made. A little later, tomato sauce, a
most useful article to have by you, may be prepared; a supply of apples
laid in, if you have a place to keep them, as also a few keeping pears
and filberts. Endeavour to keep also a large vegetable marrow,--it will
be found delicious in the winter.

In October and November, it will be necessary to prepare for the cold
weather, and get ready the winter clothing for the various members of
the family. The white summer curtains will now be carefully put away,
the fireplaces, grates, and chimneys looked to, and the House put in a
thorough state of repair, so that no "loose tile" may, at a future day,
interfere with your comfort, and extract something considerable from
your pocket.

In December, the principal household duty lies in preparing for the
creature comforts of those near and dear to us, so as to meet old
Christmas with a happy face, a contented mind, and a full larder; and in
stoning the plums, washing the currants, cutting the citron, beating the
eggs, and MIXING THE PUDDING, a housewife is not unworthily greeting the
genial season of all good things.

[Illustration]

CHAPTER III.

ARRANGEMENT AND ECONOMY OF THE KITCHEN.

62. "THE DISTRIBUTION OF A KITCHEN," says Count Rumford, the celebrated
philosopher and physician, who wrote so learnedly on all subjects
connected with domestic economy and architecture, "must always depend so
much on local circumstances, that general rules can hardly be given
respecting it; the principles, however, on which this distribution
ought, in all cases, to be made, are simple and easy to be understood,"
and, in his estimation, these resolve themselves into symmetry of
proportion in the building and convenience to the cook. The requisites
of a good kitchen, however, demand something more special than is here
pointed out. It must be remembered that it is the great laboratory of
every household, and that much of the "weal or woe," as far as regards
bodily health, depends upon the nature of the preparations concocted
within its walls. A good kitchen, therefore, should be erected with a
view to the following particulars. 1. Convenience of distribution in its
parts, with largeness of dimension. 2. Excellence of light, height of
ceiling, and good ventilation. 3. Easiness of access, without passing
through the house. 4. Sufficiently remote from the principal apartments
of the house, that the members, visitors, or guests of the family, may
not perceive the odour incident to cooking, or hear the noise of
culinary operations. 5. Plenty of fuel and water, which, with the
scullery, pantry, and storeroom, should be so near it, as to offer the
smallest possible trouble in reaching them.

[Illustration: _Fig_. 1.]

The kitchens of the Middle Ages, in England, are said to have
been constructed after the fashion of those of the Romans. They
were generally octagonal, with several fireplaces, but no
chimneys; neither was there any wood admitted into the building.
The accompanying cut, fig. 1, represents the turret which was
erected on the top of the conical roof of the kitchen at
Glastonbury Abbey, and which was perforated with holes to allow
the smoke of the fire, as well as the steam from cooking, to
escape. Some kitchens had funnels or vents below the eaves to
let out the steam, which was sometimes considerable, as the
Anglo-Saxons used their meat chiefly in a boiled state. From
this circumstance, some of their large kitchens had four ranges,
comprising a boiling-place for small boiled meats, and a
boiling-house for the great boiler. In private houses the
culinary arrangements were no doubt different; for Du Cange
mentions a little kitchen with a chamber, even in a solarium, or
upper floor.

63. THE SIMPLICITY OF THE PRIMITIVE AGES has frequently been an object
of poetical admiration, and it delights the imagination to picture men
living upon such fruits as spring spontaneously from the earth, and
desiring no other beverages to slake their thirst, but such as fountains
and rivers supply. Thus we are told, that the ancient inhabitants of
Argos lived principally on pears; that the Arcadians revelled in acorns,
and the Athenians in figs. This, of course, was in the golden age,
before ploughing began, and when mankind enjoyed all kinds of plenty
without having to earn their bread "by the sweat of their brow." This
delightful period, however, could not last for ever, and the earth
became barren, and continued unfruitful till Ceres came and taught the
art of sowing, with several other useful inventions. The first whom she
taught to till the ground was Triptolemus, who communicated his
instructions to his countrymen the Athenians. Thence the art was carried
into Achaia, and thence into Arcadia. Barley was the first grain that
was used, and the invention of bread-making is ascribed to Pan.

The use of fire, as an instrument of cookery, must have been
coeval with this invention of bread, which, being the most
necessary of all kinds of food, was frequently used in a sense
so comprehensive as to include both meat and drink. It was, by
the Greeks, baked under the ashes.

64. IN THE PRIMARY AGES it was deemed unlawful to eat flesh, and when
mankind began to depart from their primitive habits, the flesh of swine
was the first that was eaten. For several ages, it was pronounced
unlawful to slaughter oxen, from an estimate of their great value in
assisting men to cultivate the ground; nor was it usual to kill young
animals, from a sentiment which considered it cruel to take away the
life of those that had scarcely tasted the joys of existence.

At this period no cooks were kept, and we know from Homer that
his ancient heroes prepared and dressed their victuals with
their own hands. Ulysses, for example, we are told, like a
modern charwoman, excelled at lighting a fire, whilst Achilles
was an adept at turning a spit. Subsequently, heralds, employed
in civil and military affairs, filled the office of cooks, and
managed marriage feasts; but this, no doubt, was after mankind
had advanced in the art of living, a step further than
_roasting_, which, in all places, was the ancient manner of
dressing meat.

65. THE AGE OF ROASTING we may consider as that in which the use of the
metals would be introduced as adjuncts to the culinary art; and amongst
these, iron, the most useful of them all, would necessarily take a
prominent place. This metal is easily oxidized, but to bring it to a
state of fusibility, it requires a most intense heat. Of all the metals,
it is the widest diffused and most abundant; and few stones or mineral
bodies are without an admixture of it. It possesses the valuable
property of being welded by hammering; and hence its adaptation to the
numerous purposes of civilized life.

Metallic grains of iron have been found in strawberries, and a
twelfth of the weight of the wood of dried oak is said to
consist of this metal. Blood owes its colour of redness to the
quantity of iron it contains, and rain and snow are seldom
perfectly free from it. In the arts it is employed in three
states,--as _cast_ iron, _wrought_ iron, and _steel_. In each of
these it largely enters into the domestic economy, and stoves,
grates, and the general implements of cookery, are usually
composed of it. In antiquity, its employment was, comparatively
speaking, equally universal. The excavations made at Pompeii
have proved this. The accompanying cuts present us with
specimens of stoves, both ancient and modern. Fig. 2 is the
remains of a kitchen stove found in the house of Pansa, at
Pompeii, and would seem, in its perfect state, not to have been
materially different from such as are in use at the present day.
Fig. 3 is a self-acting, simple open range in modern use, and
may be had of two qualities, ranging, according to their
dimensions, from L3. 10s. and L3. 18s. respectively, up to L4.
10s. and L7. 5s. They are completely fitted up with oven,
boiler, sliding cheek, wrought-iron bars, revolving shelves, and
brass tap. Fig. 4, is called the Improved Leamington Kitchener,
and is said to surpass any other range in use, for easy cooking
by one fire. It has a hot plate, which is well calculated for an
ironing-stove, and on which as many vessels as will stand upon
it, may be kept boiling, without being either soiled or injured.
Besides, it has a perfectly ventilated and spacious wrought-iron
roaster, with movable shelves, draw-out stand, double
dripping-pan, and meat-stand. The roaster can be converted into
an oven by closing the valves, when bread and pastry can be
baked in it in a superior manner. It also has a large iron
boiler with brass tap and steam-pipe, round and square gridirons
for chops and steaks, ash-pan, open fire for roasting, and a set
of ornamental covings with plate-warmer attached. It took a
first-class prize and medal in the Great Exhibition of 1851, and
was also exhibited, with all the recent improvements, at the
Dublin Exhibition in 1853. Fig. 5 is another kitchener, adapted
for large families. It has on the one side, a large ventilated
oven; and on the other, the fire and roaster. The hot plate is
over all, and there is a back boiler, made of wrought iron, with
brass tap and steam-pipe. In other respects it resembles Fig. 4,
with which it possesses similar advantages of construction.
Either maybe had at varying prices, according to size, from L5.
15s. up to L23. 10s. They are supplied by Messrs. Richard & John
Slack 336, Strand, London.

[Illustration: _Fig_. 2.]

[Illustration: _Fig_. 3.]

[Illustration: _Fig_. 4.]

[Illustration: _Fig_. 5.]

66. FROM KITCHEN RANGES to the implements used in cookery is but a step.
With these, every kitchen should be well supplied, otherwise the cook
must not be expected to "perform her office" in a satisfactory manner.
Of the culinary utensils of the ancients, our knowledge is very limited;
but as the art of living, in every civilized country, is pretty much the
same, the instruments for cooking must, in a great degree, bear a
striking resemblance to each other. On referring to classical
antiquities, we find mentioned, among household utensils, leather bags,
baskets constructed of twigs, reeds, and rushes; boxes, basins, and
bellows; bread-moulds, brooms, and brushes; caldrons, colanders,
cisterns, and chafing-dishes; cheese-rasps, knives, and ovens of the
Dutch kind; funnels and frying-pans; handmills, soup-ladles, milk-pails,
and oil-jars; presses, scales, and sieves; spits of different sizes, but
some of them large enough to roast an ox; spoons, fire-tongs, trays,
trenchers, and drinking-vessels; with others for carrying food,
preserving milk, and holding cheese. This enumeration, if it does
nothing else, will, to some extent, indicate the state of the simpler
kinds of mechanical arts among the ancients.

[Illustration: _Fig_. 6.]

[Illustration: _Fig_. 7.]

[Illustration: _Fig_. 8.]

In so far as regards the shape and construction of many of the
kitchen utensils enumerated above, they bore a great resemblance
to our own. This will be seen by the accompanying cuts. Fig. 6
is an ancient stock-pot in bronze, which seems to have been made
to hang over the fire, and was found in the buried city of
Pompeii. Fig. 7 is one of modern make, and may be obtained
either of copper or wrought iron, tinned inside. Fig. 8 is
another of antiquity, with a large ladle and colander, with
holes attached. It is taken from the column of Trajan. The
modern ones can be obtained at all prices, according to size,
from 13s. 6d. up to L1. 1s.

67. IN THE MANUFACTURE OF THESE UTENSILS, bronze metal seems to have
been much in favour with the ancients. It was chosen not only for their
domestic vessels, but it was also much used for their public sculptures
and medals. It is a compound, composed of from six to twelve parts of
tin to one hundred of copper. It gives its name to figures and all
pieces of sculpture made of it. Brass was another favourite metal, which
is composed of copper and zinc. It is more fusible than copper, and not
so apt to tarnish. In a pure state it is not malleable, unless when hot,
and after it has been melted twice it will not bear the hammer. To
render it capable of being wrought, it requires 7 lb. of lead to be put
to 1 cwt. of its own material.