The Book of Household Management - Mrs. Isabella Beeton
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[Illustration]
CHAPTER IV.
INTRODUCTION TO COOKERY.
76. AS IN THE FINE ARTS, the progress of mankind from barbarism to
civilization is marked by a gradual succession of triumphs over the rude
materialities of nature, so in the art of cookery is the progress
gradual from the earliest and simplest modes, to those of the most
complicated and refined. Plain or rudely-carved stones, tumuli, or
mounds of earth, are the monuments by which barbarous tribes denote the
events of their history, to be succeeded, only in the long course of a
series of ages, by beautifully-proportioned columns, gracefully-sculptured
statues, triumphal arches, coins, medals, and the higher efforts of the
pencil and the pen, as man advances by culture and observation to the
perfection of his facilities. So is it with the art of cookery. Man,
in his primitive state, lives upon roots and the fruits of the earth,
until, by degrees, he is driven to seek for new means, by which his
wants may be supplied and enlarged. He then becomes a hunter and a
fisher. As his species increases, greater necessities come upon him,
when he gradually abandons the roving life of the savage for the more
stationary pursuits of the herdsman. These beget still more settled
habits, when he begins the practice of agriculture, forms ideas of the
rights of property, and has his own, both defined and secured. The
forest, the stream, and the sea are now no longer his only resources for
food. He sows and he reaps, pastures and breeds cattle, lives on the
cultivated produce of his fields, and revels in the luxuries of the
dairy; raises flocks for clothing, and assumes, to all intents and
purposes, the habits of permanent life and the comfortable condition of
a farmer. This is the fourth stage of social progress, up to which the
useful or mechanical arts have been incidentally developing themselves,
when trade and commerce begin. Through these various phases, _only to
live_ has been the great object of mankind; but, by-and-by, comforts are
multiplied, and accumulating riches create new wants. The object, then,
is not only to _live_, but to live economically, agreeably, tastefully,
and well. Accordingly, the art of cookery commences; and although the
fruits of the earth, the fowls of the air, the beasts of the field, and
the fish of the sea, are still the only food of mankind, yet these are
so prepared, improved, and dressed by skill and ingenuity, that they are
the means of immeasurably extending the boundaries of human enjoyments.
Everything that is edible, and passes under the hands of the cook, is
more or less changed, and assumes new forms. Hence the influence of that
functionary is immense upon the happiness of a household.
77. In order that the duties of the Cook may be properly performed, and
that he may be able to reproduce esteemed dishes with certainty, all
terms of indecision should be banished from his art. Accordingly, what
is known only to him, will, in these pages, be made known to others. In
them all those indecisive terms expressed by a bit of this, some of
that, a small piece of that, and a handful of the other, shall never be
made use of, but all quantities be precisely and explicitly stated. With
a desire, also, that all ignorance on this most essential part of the
culinary art should disappear, and that a uniform system of weights and
measures should be adopted, we give an account of the weights which
answer to certain measures.
A TABLE-SPOONFUL is frequently mentioned in a recipe, in the
prescriptions of medical men, and also in medical, chemical, and
gastronomical works. By it is generally meant and understood a measure
or bulk equal to that which would be produced by _half an ounce_ of
water.
A DESSERT-SPOONFUL is the half of a table-spoonful; that is to say, by
it is meant a measure or bulk equal to a _quarter of an ounce_ of water.
A TEA-SPOONFUL is equal in quantity to a _drachm_ of water.
A DROP.--This is the name of a vague kind of measure, and is so called
on account of the liquid being _dropped_ from the mouth of a bottle. Its
quantity, however, will vary, either from the consistency of the liquid
or the size and shape of the mouth of the bottle. The College of
Physicians determined the quantity of a drop to be _one grain_, 60 drops
making one fluid drachm. Their drop, or sixtieth part of a fluid drachm,
is called a _minim_.
[Illustration: _Fig_. 22.]
Graduated class measures can be obtained at any chemist's, and
they save much trouble. One of these, containing a wine pint, is
divided into 16 oz., and the oz, into 8 drachms of water; by
which, any certain weight mentioned in a recipe can be
accurately measured out. Home-made measures of this kind can
readily be formed by weighing the water contained in any given
measure, and marking on any tall glass the space it occupies.
This mark can easily be made with a file. It will be interesting
to many readers to know the basis on which the French found
their system of weights and measures, for it certainly possesses
the grandeur of simplicity. The metre, which is the basis of the
whole system of French weights and measures, is the exact
measurement of one forty-millionth part of a meridian of the
earth.
78. EXCELLENCE IN THE ART OF COOKERY, as in all other things, is only
attainable by practice and experience. In proportion, therefore, to the
opportunities which a cook has had of these, so will be his excellence
in the art. It is in the large establishments of princes, noblemen, and
very affluent families alone, that the man cook is found in this
country. He, also, superintends the kitchens of large hotels, clubs, and
public institutions, where he, usually, makes out the bills of fare,
which are generally submitted to the principal for approval. To be able
to do this, therefore, it is absolutely necessary that he should be a
judge of the season of every dish, as well as know perfectly the state
of every article he undertakes to prepare. He must also be a judge of
every article he buys; for no skill, however great it may be, will
enable him to, make that good which is really bad. On him rests the
responsibility of the cooking generally, whilst a speciality of his
department, is to prepare the rich soups, stews, ragouts, and such
dishes as enter into the more refined and complicated portions of his
art, and such as are not usually understood by ordinary professors. He,
therefore, holds a high position in a household, being inferior in rank,
as already shown (21), only to the house steward, the valet, and the
butler.
In the luxurious ages of Grecian antiquity, Sicilian cooks were
the most esteemed, and received high rewards for their services.
Among them, one called Trimalcio was such an adept in his art,
that he could impart to common fish both the form and flavour of
the most esteemed of the piscatory tribes. A chief cook in the
palmy days of Roman voluptuousness had about L800 a year, and
Antony rewarded the one that cooked the supper which pleased
Cleopatra, with the present of a city. With the fall of the
empire, the culinary art sank into less consideration. In the
middle ages, cooks laboured to acquire a reputation for their
sauces, which they composed of strange combinations, for the
sake of novelty, as well as singularity.
79. THE DUTIES OF THE COOK, THE KITCHEN AND THE SCULLERY MAIDS, are so
intimately associated, that they can hardly be treated of separately.
The cook, however, is at the head of the kitchen; and in proportion to
her possession of the qualities of cleanliness, neatness, order,
regularity, and celerity of action, so will her influence appear in the
conduct of those who are under her; as it is upon her that the whole
responsibility of the business of the kitchen rests, whilst the others
must lend her, both a ready and a willing assistance, and be especially
tidy in their appearance, and active, in their movements.
In the larger establishments of the middle ages, cooks, with the
authority of feudal chiefs, gave their orders from a high chair
in which they ensconced themselves, and commanded a view of all
that was going on throughout their several domains. Each held a
long wooden spoon, with which he tasted, without leaving his
seat, the various comestibles that were cooking on the stoves,
and which he frequently used as a rod of punishment on the backs
of those whose idleness and gluttony too largely predominated
over their diligence and temperance.
80. IF, AS WE HAVE SAID (3), THE QUALITY OF EARLY RISING be of the first
importance to the mistress, what must it be to the servant! Let it,
therefore, be taken as a long-proved truism, that without it, in every
domestic, the effect of all things else, so far as _work_ is concerned,
may, in a great measure, be neutralized. In a cook, this quality is most
essential; for an hour lost in the morning, will keep her toiling,
absolutely toiling, all day, to overtake that which might otherwise have
been achieved with ease. In large establishments, six is a good hour to
rise in the summer, and seven in the winter.
81. HER FIRST DUTY, in large establishments and where it is requisite,
should be to set her dough for the breakfast rolls, provided this has
not been done on the previous night, and then to engage herself with
those numerous little preliminary occupations which may not
inappropriately be termed laying out her duties for the day. This will
bring in the breakfast hour of eight, after which, directions must be
given, and preparations made, for the different dinners of the household
and family.
82. IN THOSE NUMEROUS HOUSEHOLDS where a cook and housemaid are only
kept, the general custom is, that the cook should have the charge of the
dining-room. The hall, the lamps and the doorstep are also committed to
her care, and any other work there may be on the outside of the house.
In establishments of this kind, the cook will, after having lighted her
kitchen fire, carefully brushed the range, and cleaned the hearth,
proceed to prepare for breakfast. She will thoroughly rinse the kettle,
and, filling it with fresh water, will put it on the fire to boil. She
will then go to the breakfast-room, or parlour, and there make all
things ready for the breakfast of the family. Her attention will next be
directed to the hall, which she will sweep and wipe; the kitchen stairs,
if there be any, will now be swept; and the hall mats, which have been
removed and shaken, will be again put in their places.
The cleaning of the kitchen, pantry, passages, and kitchen
stairs must always be over before breakfast, so that it may not
interfere with the other business of the day. Everything should
be ready, and the whole house should wear a comfortable aspect
when the heads of the house and members of the family make their
appearance. Nothing, it may be depended on, will so please the
mistress of an establishment, as to notice that, although she
has not been present to see that the work was done, attention to
smaller matters has been carefully paid, with a view to giving
her satisfaction and increasing her comfort.
83. BY THE TIME THAT THE COOK has performed the duties mentioned above,
and well swept, brushed, and dusted her kitchen, the breakfast-bell will
most likely summon her to the parlour, to "bring in" the breakfast. It
is the cook's department, generally, in the smaller establishments, to
wait at breakfast, as the housemaid, by this time, has gone up-stairs
into the bedrooms, and has there applied herself to her various duties.
The cook usually answers the bells and single knocks at the door in the
early part of the morning, as the tradesmen, with whom it is her more
special business to speak, call at these hours.
84. IT IS IN HER PREPARATION OF THE DINNER that the cook begins to feel
the weight and responsibility of her situation, as she must take upon
herself all the dressing and the serving of the principal dishes, which
her skill and ingenuity have mostly prepared. Whilst these, however, are
cooking, she must be busy with her pastry, soups, gravies, ragouts, &c.
Stock, or what the French call _consomme_, being the basis of most made
dishes, must be always at hand, in conjunction with her sweet herbs and
spices for seasoning. "A place for everything, and everything in its
place," must be her rule, in order that time may not be wasted in
looking for things when they are wanted, and in order that the whole
apparatus of cooking may move with the regularity and precision of a
well-adjusted machine;--all must go on simultaneously. The vegetables
and sauces must be ready with the dishes they are to accompany, and in
order that they may be suitable, the smallest oversight must not be made
in their preparation. When the dinner-hour has arrived, it is the duty
of the cook to dish-up such dishes as may, without injury, stand, for
some time, covered on the hot plate or in the hot closet; but such as
are of a more important or _recherche_ kind, must be delayed until the
order "to serve" is given from the drawing-room. Then comes haste; but
there must be no hurry,--all must work with order. The cook takes charge
of the fish, soups, and poultry; and the kitchen-maid of the vegetables,
sauces, and gravies. These she puts into their appropriate dishes,
whilst the scullery-maid waits on and assists the cook. Everything must
be timed so as to prevent its getting cold, whilst great care should be
taken, that, between the first and second courses, no more time is
allowed to elapse than is necessary, for fear that the company in the
dining-room lose all relish for what has yet to come of the dinner. When
the dinner has been served, the most important feature in the daily life
of the cook is at an end. She must, however, now begin to look to the
contents of her larder, taking care to keep everything sweet and clean,
so that no disagreeable smells may arise from the gravies, milk, or meat
that may be there. These are the principal duties of a cook in a
first-rate establishment.
In smaller establishments, the housekeeper often conducts the higher
department of cooking (_see_ 58, 59, 60), and the cook, with the
assistance of a scullery-maid, performs some of the subordinate duties
of the kitchen-maid.
When circumstances render it necessary, the cook engages to perform the
whole of the work of the kitchen, and, in some places, a portion of the
house-work also.
85. WHILST THE COOK IS ENGAGED WITH HER MORNING DUTIES, the kitchen-maid
is also occupied with hers. Her first duty, after the fire is lighted,
is to sweep and clean the kitchen, and the various offices belonging to
it. This she does every morning, besides cleaning the stone steps at the
entrance of the house, the halls, the passages, and the stairs which
lead to the kitchen. Her general duties, besides these, are to wash and
scour all these places twice a week, with the tables, shelves, and
cupboards. She has also to dress the nursery and servants'-hall dinners,
to prepare all fish, poultry, and vegetables, trim meat joints and
cutlets, and do all such duties as may be considered to enter into the
cook's department in a subordinate degree.
86. THE DUTIES OF THE SCULLERY-MAID are to assist the cook; to keep the
scullery clean, and all the metallic as well as earthenware kitchen
utensils.
The position of scullery-maid is not, of course, one of high
rank, nor is the payment for her services large. But if she be
fortunate enough to have over her a good kitchen-maid and clever
cook, she may very soon learn to perform various little duties
connected with cooking operations, which may be of considerable
service in fitting her for a more responsible place. Now, it
will be doubtless thought by the majority of our readers, that
the fascinations connected with the position of the
scullery-maid, are not so great as to induce many people to
leave a comfortable home in order to work in a scullery. But we
are acquainted with one instance in which the desire, on the
part of a young girl, was so strong to become connected with the
kitchen and cookery, that she absolutely left her parents, and
engaged herself as a scullery-maid in a gentleman's house. Here
she showed herself so active and intelligent, that she very
quickly rose to the rank of kitchen-maid; and from this, so
great was her gastronomical genius, she became, in a short space
of time, one of the best women-cooks in England. After this, we
think, it must be allowed, that a cook, like a poet, _nascitur,
non fit_.
87. MODERN COOKERY stands so greatly indebted to the gastronomic
propensities of our French neighbours, that many of their terms are
adopted and applied by English artists to the same as well as similar
preparations of their own. A vocabulary of these is, therefore,
indispensable in a work of this kind. Accordingly, the following will be
found sufficiently complete for all ordinary purposes:--
EXPLANATION OF FRENCH TERMS USED IN MODERN HOUSEHOLD COOKERY.
ASPIC.--A savoury jelly, used as an exterior moulding for cold game,
poultry, fish, &c. This, being of a transparent nature, allows the bird
which it covers to be seen through it. This may also be used for
decorating or garnishing.
ASSIETTE (plate).--_Assiettes_ are the small _entrees_ and
_hors-d'oeuvres_, the quantity of which does not exceed what a plate
will hold. At dessert, fruits, cheese, chestnuts, biscuits, &c., if
served upon a plate, are termed _assiettes_.--ASSIETTE VOLANTE is a
dish which a servant hands round to the guests, but is not placed upon
the table. Small cheese souffles and different dishes, which ought to be
served very hot, are frequently made _assielles volantes_.
AU-BLEU.--Fish dressed in such a manner as to have a _bluish_
appearance.
BAIN-MARIE.--An open saucepan or kettle of nearly boiling water, in
which a smaller vessel can be set for cooking and warming. This is very
useful for keeping articles hot, without altering their quantity or
quality. If you keep sauce, broth, or soup by the fireside, the soup
reduces and becomes too strong, and the sauce thickens as well as
reduces; but this is prevented by using the _bain-marie_, in which the
water should be very hot, but not boiling.
BECHAMEL.--French white sauce, now frequently used in English cookery.
BLANCH.--To whiten poultry, vegetables, fruit, &c., by plunging them
into boiling water for a short time, and afterwards plunging them into
cold water, there to remain until they are cold.
BLANQUETTE.--A sort of fricassee.
BOUILLI.--Beef or other meat boiled; but, generally speaking, boiled
beef is understood by the term.
BOUILLIE.--A French dish resembling hasty-pudding.
BOUILLON.--A thin broth or soup.
BRAISE.--To stew meat with fat bacon until it is tender, it having
previously been blanched.
BRAISIERE.--A saucepan having a lid with ledges, to put fire on the top.
BRIDER.--To pass a packthread through poultry, game, &c., to keep
together their members.
CARAMEL (burnt sugar).--This is made with a piece of sugar, of the size
of a nut, browned in the bottom of a saucepan; upon which a cupful of
stock is gradually poured, stirring all the time a glass of broth,
little by little. It may be used with the feather of a quill, to colour
meats, such as the upper part of fricandeaux; and to impart colour to
sauces. Caramel made with water instead of stock may be used to colour
_compotes_ and other _entremets_.
CASSEROLE.--A crust of rice, which, after having been moulded into the
form of a pie, is baked, and then filled with a fricassee of white meat
or a puree of game.
COMPOTE.--A stew, as of fruit or pigeons.
CONSOMME.--Rich stock, or gravy.
CROQUETTE.--Ball of fried rice or potatoes.
CROUTONS.--Sippets of bread.
DAUBIERE.--An oval stewpan, in which _daubes_ are cooked; _daubes_ being
meat or fowl stewed in sauce.
DESOSSER.--To _bone_, or take out the bones from poultry, game, or fish.
This is an operation requiring considerable experience.
ENTREES.--Small side or corner dishes, served with the first course.
ENTREMETS.--Small side or corner dishes, served with the second course.
ESCALOPES.--Collops; small, round, thin pieces of tender meat, or of
fish, beaten with the handle of a strong knife to make them tender.
FEUILLETAGE.--Puff-paste.
FLAMBER.--To singe fowl or game, after they have been picked.
FONCER.--To put in the bottom of a saucepan slices of ham, veal, or thin
broad slices of bacon.
GALETTE.--A broad thin cake.
GATEAU.--A cake, correctly speaking; but used sometimes to denote a
pudding and a kind of tart.
GLACER.--To glaze, or spread upon hot meats, or larded fowl, a thick and
rich sauce or gravy, called _glaze_. This is laid on with a feather or
brush, and in confectionary the term means to ice fruits and pastry with
sugar, which glistens on hardening.
HORS-D'OEUVRES.--Small dishes, or _assiettes volantes_ of sardines,
anchovies, and other relishes of this kind, served to the guests during
the first course. (_See_ ASSIETTES VOLANTES.)
LIT.--A bed or layer; articles in thin slices are placed in layers,
other articles, or seasoning, being laid between them.
MAIGRE.--Broth, soup, or gravy, made without meat.
MATELOTE.--A rich fish-stew, which is generally composed of carp, eels,
trout, or barbel. It is made with wine.
MAYONNAISE.--Cold sauce, or salad dressing.
MENU.--The bill of fare.
MERINGUE.--A kind of icing, made of whites of eggs and sugar, well
beaten.
MIROTON.--Larger slices of meat than collops; such as slices of beef for
a vinaigrette, or ragout or stew of onions.
MOUILLER.--To add water, broth, or other liquid, during the cooking.
PANER.--To cover over with very fine crumbs of bread, meats, or any
other articles to be cooked on the gridiron, in the oven, or frying-pan.
PIQUER.--To lard with strips of fat bacon, poultry, game, meat, &c. This
should always be done according to the vein of the meat, so that in
carving you slice the bacon across as well as the meat.
POELEE.--Stock used instead of water for boiling turkeys, sweetbreads,
fowls, and vegetables, to render them less insipid. This is rather an
expensive preparation.
PUREE.--Vegetables, or meat reduced to a very smooth pulp, which is
afterwards mixed with enough liquid to make it of the consistency of
very thick soup.
RAGOUT.--Stew or hash.
REMOULADE.--Salad dressing.
RISSOLES.--Pastry, made of light puff-paste, and cut into various forms,
and fried. They may be filled with fish, meat, or sweets.
ROUX.--Brown and white; French thickening.
SALMI.--Ragout of game previously roasted.
SAUCE PIQUANTE.--A sharp sauce, in which somewhat of a vinegar flavour
predominates.
SAUTER.--To dress with sauce in a saucepan, repeatedly moving it about.
TAMIS.--Tammy, a sort of open cloth or sieve through which to strain
broth and sauces, so as to rid them of small bones, froth, &c.
TOURTE.--Tart. Fruit pie.
TROUSSER.--To truss a bird; to put together the body and tie the wings
and thighs, in order to round it for roasting or boiling, each being
tied then with packthread, to keep it in the required form.
VOL-AU-VENT.--A rich crust of very fine puff-paste, which may be filled
with various delicate ragouts or fricassees, of fish, flesh, or fowl.
Fruit may also be inclosed in a _vol-au-vent_.
[Illustration]
SOUPS.
CHAPTER V.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING SOUPS.
88. LEAN, JUICY BEEF, MUTTON, AND VEAL, form the basis of all good
soups; therefore it is advisable to procure those pieces which afford
the richest succulence, and such as are fresh-killed. Stale meat renders
them bad, and fat is not so well adapted for making them. The principal
art in composing good rich soup, is so to proportion the several
ingredients that the flavour of one shall not predominate over another,
and that all the articles of which it is composed, shall form an
agreeable whole. To accomplish this, care must be taken that the roots
and herbs are perfectly well cleaned, and that the water is proportioned
to the quantity of meat and other ingredients. Generally a quart of
water may be allowed to a pound of meat for soups, and half the quantity
for gravies. In making soups or gravies, gentle stewing or simmering is
incomparably the best. It may be remarked, however, that a really good
soup can never be made but in a well-closed vessel, although, perhaps,
greater wholesomeness is obtained by an occasional exposure to the air.
Soups will, in general, take from three to six hours doing, and are much
better prepared the day before they are wanted. When the soup is cold,
the fat may be much more easily and completely removed; and when it is
poured off, care must be taken not to disturb the settlings at the
bottom of the vessel, which are so fine that they will escape through a
sieve. A tamis is the best strainer, and if the soup is strained while
it is hot, let the tamis or cloth be previously soaked in cold water.
Clear soups must be perfectly transparent, and thickened soups about the
consistence of cream. To thicken and give body to soups and gravies,
potato-mucilage, arrow-root, bread-raspings, isinglass, flour and
butter, barley, rice, or oatmeal, in a little water rubbed well
together, are used. A piece of boiled beef pounded to a pulp, with a bit
of butter and flour, and rubbed through a sieve, and gradually
incorporated with the soup, will be found an excellent addition. When
the soup appears to be _too thin_ or _too weak_, the cover of the boiler
should be taken off, and the contents allowed to boil till some of the
watery parts have evaporated; or some of the thickening materials, above
mentioned, should be added. When soups and gravies are kept from day to
day in hot weather, they should be warmed up every day, and put into
fresh scalded pans or tureens, and placed in a cool cellar. In temperate
weather, every other day may be sufficient.
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