A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, Vol. 1 - Robert Kerr
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If the son of one Tartar, and the daughter of another die unmarried, the
parents meet together and celebrate a marriage between their deceased
children. On this occasion they draw up a written contract, and paint
representations of men and women for servants, of horses, camels, cattle,
and sheep, of clothes of all kinds, and of paper money; and all these
things are burned along with the contract, conceiving that these will all
follow their children substantially to the other world to serve them, and
that they will be there united in affinity, as if they had been actually
married while living.
When the Tartars go to war, the prince usually leads an army of not less
than an hundred thousand men, all cavalry; each man having usually eight or
more horses or mares. Their troops are regularly distributed into bands of
tens, hundreds, thousands, and ten thousands; a troop of an hundred is
called a _Tuc_, and a body of ten thousand is called a _Toman_. They carry
them felt houses along with them, for shelter in bad weather. When
necessity requires, they will ride for ten days together without victuals,
subsisting upon the blood of their horses, by cutting a vein and sucking
the blood. But they likewise prepare dried milk, for taking with them in
their expeditions, in the following manner: After taking off the cream,
which is made into butter, they boil the milk and dry it in the sun into a
kind of hard curd, of which every man in the army carries about ten pounds
along with him. Every morning they take about half a pound of this curd,
which they put into a leathern bottle with a quantity of water, and as he
rides along, the motion of the horse shakes and mixes these together, and
this mess suffices for the food of one day. When they approach towards the
enemy, they send out numerous scouts on all sides, that they may not be
assaulted unawares, and to bring intelligence of the numbers, motions, and
posture of the enemy. When they come to battle, they ride about in apparent
disorder, shooting with their arrows; and sometimes make a show of
precipitate flight, discharging their arrows backwards as they fly; and
when by these means they have broken or dispersed the enemy, they suddenly
rally their forces, and make an unexpected assault, which generally decides
the victory, their horses being all so thoroughly under command, as to turn
any way merely by a signal.
If any Tartar steals a thing of small value, he is not put to death, but
receives a certain number of blows with a cudgel, according to the measure
of the offence; either seven, or seventeen, or twenty-seven, thirty-seven,
or forty-seven; though some die through the severity of this cudgelling.
But if any one steal a horse or other thing of great value, for which he
deserves to die according to their laws, he is cut asunder with a sword,
unless he redeem his life by restoring the theft nine fold. Such as have
horses, oxen, or camels, brand them with their particular marks, and send
them to feed in the pastures without a keeper.
Leaving the city of Caracarum, and the mountain Altai, we enter the
champaign country of Bargu[6], which extends northwards for about fifty
days journey. The inhabitants of this country are called Medites[7], and
are subject to the great, khan, and resemble the Tartars in their manners.
They have no corn or wine, and employ themselves chiefly, during summer, in
the chase of wild beasts, and in catching birds, on the flesh of which they
subsist in winter; and they have great abundance of a kind of stags, which
they render so tame that they allow themselves to be ridden. In the winter
this country is so excessively cold, that fowls, and all other living
things, remove to warmer regions. After forty days journey we arrive at the
ocean, near which is a mountain frequented by storks, and fine falcons, as
a breeding place, and from whence falcons are brought for the amusement of
the great khan.
[1] Caracarum, Caracorum, Taracoram, Korakarum, Karakarin, Karakum, called
Holin by the Chinese. This city was laid down by Danville, with
acknowledged uncertainty, on the Onguin-pira river, in Lat. 44 deg.. 50'.
N. Long. 107 deg.. E.; while others assign its situation on the Orchon, in
Lat. 46 deg.. 30. N. Long. 108-1/2 E: about 150 miles to the N.W.--E.
[2] The original residence of the Moals or Monguis, whom Marco always calls
Tartars, appears to have been limited by the Selinga and lake Baikal
on the west, or perhaps reaching to the Bogdo Altai and Sayanak
mountains; the Soilki mountains on the east dividing them from the
Mandshurs, and the Ungar-daga mountains on the south, dividing them
from the great empire of Tangut, which they overthrew. Bargu may have
been on the Baikal, near which there still is a place called Barsuzin.
Of Cursa no trace is to be found in our maps.--E.
[3] Prester-John, Presbyter or Priest, or, as called by the Germans,
Priester Johann, from which our English denomination, was prince of
the Naymanni or Karaites, a tribe residing on tke river Kallassui or
Karasibi, which, discharges itself into the Jenisei. His original name
is said to have been Togrul, and for some services to the Chinese in
their wars, he was honoured with the title of 0ng, Uang, or Wang; from
whence arose his Tartarian style of Ung-khan, likewise erroneously
written Aunaek, or Avenaek-khan. Perhaps this prince may have been
converted by the Nestorian Christians, and may even have received
priests orders.--Forst.
It is more probable that he may have belonged to the Dalai-lama
religion, which some ignorant traveller, from resemblance in dress,
and the use of rosaries in prayer, may have supposed a Christian sect
residing in eastern Scythia.--E.
[4] Tenduc, Tenduch, Teuduch.--Forst.
[5] According to the genealogical history of the Tartars by Abulgasi
Bayadur-khan, Ugadai-khan succeeded Zingis in 1230. In 1245 he was
succeeded by his son Kajuk-khan, called Khen-khan by Marco in the
text. To him Mangu-khan succeeded in 1247, who held the empire till
1257; when he was succeeded by Koplai or Kublai-khan, who reigned
thirty-five years, and died in 1292.--Harris.
Marco probably dated the reign of Kublai-khan, which he extends to
sixty years, from his having received a great delegated government, a
long time before he became great khan, or emperor of the Tartars.--E.
[6] Bargu-fin, or Bargouin, is the name of a river on the east side of lake
Baikal, on which is a town or village named Barguzin, or Barguzinskoy
Ostrog, signifying the town of the Burguzians. But by the description
in the text, Marco appears to have comprehended the whole north-east
of Tartary, to the north of the Changai mountains, under the general
name of Bargu, in which he now includes Curza, mentioned separately at
the commencement of the preceding Section, and where the situation of
Bargu has been already more particularly described in a note.--E.
[7] Metrites, Meclites, or Markaets.--Forst. No such appellation is to be
found in modern geography; but the discontinuance of the designations,
of temporary and continually changing associations of the wandering
tribes of the desert, is not to be wondered at, and even if their
records were preserved, they would be altogether unimportant.--E.
SECTION IX.
_Of the vast Countries to the North of Tartary, and many other curious
Particulars_.
We now return to Campion, or Kantcheou, on the river Etzine. Proceeding
thence five days journey towards the east, we come to the country of
Erginul[1] in the province of Tangut, which is subject to the great khan.
In this kingdom there are many idolaters, with some Nestorians and Turks.
It contains many cities and castles, the chief place being of the same name
with the province.
Going south-east from this place towards Kathay, we come to the famous city
of Cinguy[2], situated in a province of the same name, which is tributary
to the great khan, and is contained in the kingdom of Tangut. Some of the
people are Christians, some of them Mahometans, and others are idolaters.
In this country there are certain wild cattle, nearly as large as
elephants, with black and white hair, which is short all over the body,
except on the shoulders, where it is three spans long, exceedingly fine,
pure white, and in many respects more beautiful than silk. I brought some
of this hair to Venice as a rarity. Many of these oxen are tamed and broke
in for labour, for which they are better adapted, by their strength, than
any other creatures, as they bear very heavy burdens, and when yoked in the
plough will do twice the work of others. The best musk in the world is
found in this province, and is procured from a beautiful animal, the size
of a goat, having hair like a stag, the feet and tail resembling an
antelope, but has no horns; it has two teeth in the upper jaw, above three
inches long, as white as the finest ivory[3]. When the moon is at the full,
a tumor, or imposthume, grows on the belly of this animal, resembling a
bladder filled with blood, and at this time people go to hunt this animal
for the sake of this bag or swelling, which they dry in the sun, and sell
at a high price, as it is the best of musk. The flesh also of the animal is
good for eating. I, Marco, brought the head and feet of one of these
animals to Venice.
The people of this country of Singui live by trade and manufacture, and
they have abundance of corn. They are idolaters, having fat bodies, small
noses, black hair, and no beard, except a few scattered hairs on their
chins. The women are exceedingly fair, and the men rather make choice of
their wives by their beauty than by their nobility or riches; so, that when
a great nobleman marries a poor but beautiful wife, he has often to assign
a large dowery to obtain the consent of the mother. This province extends
twenty-five days journey in length, and is very fertile. In it there are
exceedingly large pheasants, with tails eight or ten handbreadths long, and
many other kinds of birds, some of which have very beautiful and finely
variegated plumage.
After eight days farther travel to the east, we come to the district of
Egrigaia[4], which is still in the kingdom of Tangut, and subject to the
great khan; it contains many cities and castles, Calacia being the
principal city, which is inhabited by idolaters, though the Nestorian
Christians have three churches. In this city, excellent camblets are
manufactured from, white wool, and the hair of camels[5] which are exported
by the merchants to all parts of the world, and particularly to Kathay.
East from this province of Egrigaia is that of Tandach[6], in which there
are many cities and castles. The king of this nation is called George, who
is a Christian and a priest[7], and most of the people also are Christians;
he is descended of Prester John, formerly mentioned under the name of
Umcan, from whom he is the fourth in descent, and he pays tribute to the
great khan; and ever since the battle in which Umcan was slain by Zingis,
the great khans have given their daughters in marriage to the kings of this
country, who do not possess all the dominions which were formerly subject
to Prester John. There is a mixed race in this country, called Argons,
descended of idolaters and Mahometans, who are the handsomest people in
these parts, and are most ingenious manufacturers and cunning merchants.
This province was the chief residence of Prester John, and there are two
neighbouring districts, called Ung and Mongol by the natives, which the
people of Europe call Gog and Magog.
Travelling eastwards for seven days towards Kathay, there are many cities,
inhabited by idolaters, Mahometans, and Nestorians, who live by commerce
and manufactures, and who make stuffs wrought with gold and flowers, and
other silken stuffs of all kinds, and colours like those made among us, and
also woollen cloths of various kinds. One of these towns is Sindicin, or
Sindacui, where very excellent arms of all kinds fit for war are
manufactured. In the mountains of this province, called Idifa, or Ydifu,
there are great mines of silver.
Three days journey from Sindicin stands another city, named Iangamur[8],
which signifies the White Lake. Near this place, the khan has a palace, in
which he takes great delight, as he has fine gardens, with many lakes and
rivers, and multitudes of swans, and the adjacent plains abound in cranes,
pheasants, partridges, and other game. There are five sorts of cranes here,
some of which have black wings, others are white and bright; their feathers
being ornamented with eyes like those of a peacock, but of a golden colour,
with beautiful black and white necks; a third kind is not unlike our own,
in size and appearance; the fourth kind is very small and beautiful,
variegated with red and blue; the fifth is very large, and of a grey
colour, with black and red heads. In a valley near this city, there are
astonishing numbers of quails and partridges, for the maintenance of which
the khan causes millet and other seeds to be sown, that they may have
plenty of food; and a number of people are appointed to take care that no
person may catch any of these birds, which are so tame, that they will
flock around their keepers at a whistle, to receive food from their hands.
There are also a great number of small huts built, in different parts of
the valley, for shelter to these birds, during the severity of winter,
where they are regularly fed by the keepers. By these means, when the
emperor chooses to come to this part of the country, he is certain to find
abundance of game; and during winter, he has great quantities sent to him
on camels, or other beasts of burden.
Three days journey south-west from Iangamur is the city of Ciandu[9], which
was built by the great emperor Kublai-khan, and in which he had a palace
erected, of marvellous art and beauty, ornamented with marble and other
rare stones. One side of this palace extends to the middle of the city, and
the other reaches to the city wall. On this side there is a great inclosed
park, extending sixteen miles in circuit, into which none can enter but by
the palace. In this inclosure there are pleasant meadows, groves, and
rivers, and it is well stocked with red and fallow deer, and other animals.
The khan has here a mew of about two hundred ger-falcons, which he goes to
see once a-week, and he causes them to be fed with the flesh of fawns. When
he rides out into this park, he often causes some leopards to be carried on
horseback, by people appointed for this purpose, and when he gives command,
a leopard is let loose, which immediately seizes a stag or deer; and he
takes great delight in this sport.
In the middle of a fine wood, the khan has a very elegant house built all
of wood, on pillars, richly gilt and varnished; on every one of the pillars
there is a dragon gilt all over, the tail being wound around the pillar,
while the head supports the roof, and the wings are expanded on each side.
The roof is composed of large canes, three hand breadths in diameter, and
ten yards long, split down the middle, all gilt and varnished, and so
artificially laid on that no rain can penetrate. The whole of this house
can be easily pulled down and taken to pieces, like a tent, and readily set
up again, as it is all built of cane, and very light; and when it is
erected, it is fastened by two hundred silken ropes, after the manner of
tent cords, to prevent it from being thrown down by the winds. Every thing
is arranged in this place for the pleasure and convenience of the khan, who
spends three months here annually, in June, July, and August; but on the
twenty-eighth day of August he always leaves this, to go to some other
place, for the performance of a solemn sacrifice. Always on the twentieth
day of August, he is directed by the astrologers and sorcerers, to sprinkle
a quantity of white mares milk, with his own hands, as a sacrifice to the
gods and spirits of the air and the earth, in order that his subjects,
wives, children, cattle, and corn, and all that he possesses, may flourish
and prosper. The khan has a stud of horses and mares all pure white, nearly
ten thousand in number; of the milk of which none are permitted to drink,
unless those who are descended from Zingis-khan, excepting one family,
named _Boriat_, to whom this privilege was granted by Zingis, on account of
their valour. These white horses are held in such reverence, that no one
dare go before them, or disturb them in their pastures.
There are two sects of idolatrous priests, called Chebeth and Chesmu, who
ascend the roof of the palace in the midst of storms, and persuade the
people they are so holy, that they can prevent any rain from falling on the
roof. These people go about in a very filthy condition, as they never wash
or comb themselves. They have also an abominable custom of eating the
bodies of malefactors who are condemned to death, but they do not feed on
any who die naturally. These are likewise called Bachsi, which is the name
of their order, as our friars are named predicants, minors, and the like.
These fellows are great sorcerers, and seem to be able to do any thing they
please by magic art. When the great khan sits in his hall at a table, which
is raised several feet above the others[10], there is a great sideboard of
plate at some distance in the midst of the hall, and from thence these
sorcerers cause wine or milk to fill the goblets on the khans table,
whenever he commands. These Bachsi also, when they have a mind to make
feasts in honour of their idols, send word to the khan, through certain
officers deputed for the purpose, that if their idols are not honoured with
the accustomed sacrifices, they will send blights on the fruits of the
ground, and murrains among the beasts, and entreat, therefore, that he will
order a certain number of black-headed sheep, with incense, and aloes-wood,
to be delivered to them, for the due and honourable performance of the
regular sacrifices.
These priests have vast monasteries, some of which are as large as small
cities, and several of them contain about two thousand monks, or persons
devoted to the service of the idols, all of whom shave their beards and
heads, and wear particular garments, to denote that they are set apart from
the laity, for the service of their gods; yet some of them may marry. In
their solemnities, these men sing the praises of their idols, and carry
lights in their processions. Some of them, called Sensim, or Santoms, lead
an austere life, eating nothing but meal mingled with water, and when all
the flour is expended, they content themselves with the bran, without any
savoury addition. These men worship the fire, and those who follow other
rules, allege that these austere Santoms are heretics against the religious
law, because they refuse to worship idols, and never marry. These Santoms
shave their heads and beards, wear coarse hempen garments of a black, or
bright yellow colour, sleep on coarse thick mats, and live the severest
life imaginable, amid every conceivable deprivation and austerity[11].
[1] Erigrinul, Eriginul, Erdschi-nur; and this ought to be read _fifty_
days south-west, instead of five days east.--Forst. This may probably
be some district in the country of the Eluts of Kokonor, not mentioned
in our modern maps.--E.
[2] Singui, Sigan, or Singan-fou, in the Chinese province of Shensee.
--Forst.
[3] In the edition of Harris, it is said likewise to have two similar tusks
in the lower jaw, but this error must have been put in by some
ignorant editor.--E.
[4] According to Forster, this passage is corrupted, and ought to be thus
read: "After eight days journey _west_ from Ergimul or Erdschi-nur, we
come to Erigaia, Eggaya Organum, or Irganekon." And he names the chief
town Calacia, Cailac, Gailak, or Golka.--Forst.
[5] Perhaps, the chamois are here meant, and copied camels by mistake.
--Forst.
[6] Tenduc, Tenduch, Teuduch.--Forst
[7] This foolish story of Prester John has been explained in a former
note.--E
[8] Cianga-nor, Cianganior, Cyangamor, or Tsahan-nor, in lat. 45 deg.. 30. N.
long. 117 deg.. E. Marco, in these accounts of the different districts of
Tangut, seems to have followed no regular order, but goes from one to
another, as fancy or memory served.--Forst.
[9] Cyandi, Xandu, or Tshangtu.--Forst.
[10] In Harris, the elevation is said to be _eighty_ feet, perhaps a
typographical error for eight, as, in a subsequent passage, the table
of the khan is merely said to be higher than those of the rest who
have the honour to dine along with him; the particular height,
therefore, is left indeterminate in the text.--E.
[11] In all ages of the world, except the social, yet irrational ancient
superstitions of Greece and Rome, mankind have vainly thought to
propitiate the Almighty beneficence, by ridiculous acts of austere
self-torment; and even the ignorant or designing followers of the pure
and rational religion of Jesus, have copied all the monstrous mummery,
and abominable practices of the heathen, which they have engrafted
upon his law of love and harmony.--E.
SECTION X.
_Of the great power of Kublai-khan and various circumstances respecting his
Family, Government, and Dominions_.
I now propose to relate the great and marvellous acts of Kublai-khan, the
great emperor of the Tartars. His name, expressed in our language,
signifies lord of lords, and he certainly is the greatest prince in cities,
people, and treasures, that ever reigned in the world. He is lineally
descended from Zingis-khan, the first prince of the Tartars, being the
sixth emperor of that race, and began to reign in 1256, being then
_twenty-seven_ years of age[1] and he has long ruled this immense empire,
with great gravity and wisdom. He is a very valiant man, strong of body and
well exercised in arms, and evinced himself such, in many actions, before
he attained to empire, which he effected by his superior wisdom and
management, contrary to the will of his brethren. Before his accession, he
shewed himself a more valiant soldier, and a wiser general than ever the
Tartars had before his time. Yet, since he has swayed the empire, he has
always deputed his sons and other generals upon military expeditions, and
has only since then gone into the field on the following occasion.
In the year 1257, or 1258, his uncle[2] named Naiam, being then thirty
years of age, who had the command of so many countries and nations, that he
could easily have mustered 400,000 horse, became puffed up with youthful
vanity, determined to take away the empire from his lord, and drew into his
schemes another great Tartar prince, named Caydu, who was nephew to Kublai,
and commanded on the borders of great Turkey, and who engaged to bring an
100,000 men into the field, in aid of the ambitious project of Naiam. Both
of these confederates began to gather forces; but this could not be done so
secretly as not to come to the knowledge of the great khan, who immediately
set guards on all the roads into the desert, and assembled all the forces
which lay within ten days journey of Cumbalu[3], the imperial residence. In
twenty days, he had collected an army, amounting to 360,000 horse and
100,000 foot, a large part of which vast force was composed of huntsmen and
falconers, and persons belonging to the imperial household. With this army,
Kublai marched with all expedition into the province occupied by Naiam,
where he arrived at the end of twenty-five days march altogether
unexpectedly, and before Naiam had completed his preparations, or had been
joined by his confederate Caydu. After giving his troops two days rest, and
having encouraged his men in the confident expectation of victory, by means
of his astrologers and soothsayers, he advanced towards the encampment of
Naiam, and appeared with his whole army on a hill, over against the camp of
the rebels, who had not even sent out any scouts to procure intelligence.
Kublai-khan was seated on the top of a wooden castle, carried by four
elephants, and filled with archers and cross-bow men, from which the royal
standard was displayed, on which the pictures of the sun and moon were
pourtrayed. Dividing his army into three bodies, he kept one as a reserve
on the hill beside himself, and sent the two wings to attack the army of
Naiam, who resolved to stand the issue of a battle. To every ten thousand
horse in the army of Kublai, five hundred light armed footmen with lances
were assigned, who had been taught to leap up behind the horsemen on any
occasion when flight or retreat became necessary, and were instructed to
alight, and kill the horses of the enemy during battle. The two armies
joined in a well contested battle, which lasted from morning till mid-day,
when Naiam was made prisoner, and all his followers submitted themselves to
the clemency of the victor; and having renewed their oaths of allegiance,
were pardoned and dismissed, having a new governor set over them, in whose
fidelity the great khan could confide[4].