Introduction to the Philosophy and Writings of Plato - Thomas Taylor
DIALOGUES[24]
Sceptical Disputative Embarrassing Confuting Inquisitive Exciting Assisting
Dogmatical Demonstrative Analytical Inductional Authoritative Magisterial
Traditional
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[24]We have, given us by Diogenes Laertius, another division of the
characters, as he calls them, of Plato's writings, different from that
exhibited in the scheme above. This we have thought proper to subjoin, on
account of its antiquity and general reception.
Dialogues
Diadectic Speculative Physical Logical Practical Ethical Political
Inquisitive Gymnastic Maieutic Peirastic Agonistic Endeietic Anatreptic
The learned reader will observe the latter half of the dialogues, according
to this scheme, to be described by metaphors taken from the gymnastic art:
the dialogues, here termed gymnastic, being imagined to bear a similitude
to that exercise; the agonistic, to the combat. In the lowest subdivision,
indeed, the word maieutic is a metaphor of another kind, fully explained in
Plato's Theaetetus: the maieutic dialogues, however, were supposed to
resemble giving the rudiments of the art; as the peirastic were, to
represent a skirmish, or trial of proficiency; the endeietic were, it
seems, likened to the exhibiting a specimen of skill; and the anatreptic,
to presenting the spectacle of a thorough defeat, or sound drubbing. The
principal reason why we contented not ourselves with this account of the
difference between the dialogues of Plato, was the capital error there
committed in the first subdivision, of course extending itself through the
latter. This error consists in dividing the Didactic dialogues with regard
to their subject-matter; while those of the Inquisitive sort are divided
with respect to the manner of their composition. So that the subdivisions
fall not, with any propriety, under one and the same general head. Besides,
a novice in the works of Plato might hence be led naturally to suppose,
that the dogmatical or didactic dialogues are, all of them, written in the
same manner; and that the others, those of the inquisitive kind, by us
termed sceptical, have no particular subjects at all; or, if they have,
that their subjects are different from those of the didactic dialogues,
and are consequently unphilosophical. Now every one of the suppositions
here mentioned is far from being true.
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The philosopher, in thus varying his manner, and diversifying his
writings into these several kinds, means not merely to entertain with
their variety; not to teach, on different occasions, with more or less
plainness and perspicuity; not yet to insinuate different degrees of
certainty in the doctrines themselves: but he takes this method, as a
consummate master of the art of composition in the dialogue-way of
writing, from the different characters of the speakers, as from different
elements in the frame of these dramatic dialogues, or different
ingredients in their mixture, producing some peculiar genius and turn of
temper, as it were, in each.
Socrates indeed is in almost all of them the principal speaker: but when
he falls into the company of some arrogant sophist; when the modest
wisdom, and clear science of the one, are contrasted with the confident
ignorance and blind opinionativeness of the other; dispute and
controversy must of course arise: where the false pretender cannot fail
of being either puzzled or confuted. To puzzle him only is sufficient,
if there be no other persons present; because such a man can never be
confuted in his own opinion: but when there is an audience round them,
in danger of being misled by sophistry into error, then is the true
philosopher to exert his utmost, and the vain sophist to be convicted
and exposed.
In some dialogues Plato represents his great master mixing in
conversation with young men of the best families in the commonwealth.
When these happen to have docile dispositions and fair minds, then is
occasion given to the philosopher to call forth[25] the latent seeds of
wisdom, and to cultivate the noble plants with true doctrine, in the
affable and familiar way of joint inquiry. To this is owing the
inquisitive genius of such dialogues: where, by a seeming equality in the
conversation, the curiosity or zeal of the mere stranger is excited; that
of the disciple is encouraged; and, by proper questions, the mind is
aided and forwarded in the search of truth.
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[25] We require exhortation, that we may be led to true good; dissuasion,
that we may be turned from things truly evil; obstetrication, that we may
draw forth our unperverted conceptions; and confutation, that we may be
purified from two-fold ignorance.
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At other times, the philosophic hero of these dialogues is introduced
in a higher character, engaged in discourse with men of more improved
understandings and enlightened minds. At such seasons he has an
opportunity of teaching in a more explicit manner, and of discovering
the reasons of things: for to such an audience truth is due, and all
demonstrations[26] possible in the teaching it. Hence, in the dialogues
composed of these persons, naturally arises the justly argumentative or
demonstrative genius; and this, as we have before observed, according to
all the dialectic methods.
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[26] The Platonists rightly observe, that Socrates, in these cases, makes
use of demonstrative and just reasoning, ([Greek: apodeiktikou]); whereas
to the novice he is contented with arguments only probable, ([Greek:
pithanois]); and against the litigious sophist often employs such as are
[Greek: eristikoi]; puzzling and contentious.
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But when the doctrine to be taught admits not of demonstration; of which
kind is the doctrine of antiquities, being only traditional, and a matter
of belief; and the doctrine of laws, being injunctional, and the matter of
obedience; the air of authority is then assumed: in the former cases, the
doctrine is traditionally handed down to others from the authority of
ancient sages; in the latter, is magisterially pronounced with the
authority of a legislator.[27]
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[27] It is necessary to observe, that in those dialogues in which Socrates
is indeed introduced, but sustains an inferior part, he is presented to
our view as a learner, and not as a teacher; and this is the case in the
Parmenides and Timaeus. For by the former of these philosophers he is
instructed in the most abtruse theological dogmas, and by the latter in
the whole of physiology.
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Thus much for the manner in which the dialogues of Plato are severally
composed, and the cast of genius given them in their composition. The
form under which they appear, or the external character that marks them,
is of three sorts: either purely dramatic, like the dialogue of tragedy
or comedy; or purely narrative, where a former conversation is supposed
to be committed to writing, and communicated to some absent friend; or of
the mixed kind, like a narration in dramatic poems, where is recited, to
some person present, the story of things past.
Having thus divided the dialogues of Plato, in respect of that inward
form or composition, which creates their genius; and again, with
reference to that outward form, which marks them, like flowers and other
vegetables, with a certain character; we are further to make a division
of them, with regard to their subject and their design; beginning with
their design, or end, because for the sake of this are all the subjects
chosen. The end of all the writings of Plato is that, which is the end of
all true philosophy or wisdom, the perfection and the happiness of man.
Man therefore is the general subject; and the first business of philosophy
must be to inquire what is that being called man, who is to be made happy;
and what is his nature, in the perfection of which is placed his happiness.
As however, in the preceding part of this Introduction, we have endeavored
to give the outlines of Plato's doctrine concerning man, it is unnecessary
in this place to say any thing further on that subject.
The dialogues of Plato, therefore, with respect to their subjects, may be
divided into the speculative, the practical, and such as are of a mixed
nature. The subjects of these last are either general, comprehending both
the others; or differential, distinguishing them. The general subject are
either fundamental, or final: those of the fundamental kind are philosophy,
human nature, the soul of man; of the final kind are love, beauty, good.
The differential regard knowledge, as it stands related to practice; in
which are considered two questions: one of which is, whether virtue is to
he taught; the other is, whether error in the will depends on error in
the judgment. The subjects of the speculative dialogues relate either to
words, or to things. Of the former sort are etymology, sophistry, rhetoric,
poetry; of the latter sort are science, true being, the principles of
mind, outward nature. The practical subjects relate either to private
conduct, and the government of the mind over the whole man; or to his
duty towards others in his several relations; or to the government of a
civil state, and the public conduct of a whole people. Under these three
heads rank in order the particular subjects practical; virtue in general,
sanctity, temperance, fortitude, justice, friendship, patriotism, piety;
the ruling mind in a civil government, the frame and order of a state,
law in general, and lastly, those rules of government and of public
conduct, the civil laws.
Thus, for the sake of giving the reader a scientific, that is a
comprehensive, and at the same time a distinct view of Plato's writings,
we have attempted to exhibit to him, their just and natural distinctions;
whether he chooses to consider them with regard to their inward form or
essence, their outward form or appearance, their matter; or their end:
that is, in those more familiar terms, we have used in this Synopsis,
their genius, their character, their subject, and their design.
And here it is requisite to observe, that as it is the characteristic of
the highest good to be universally beneficial, though some things are
benefitted by it more and others less, in consequence of their greater or
less aptitude to receive it; in like manner the dialogues of Plato are
so largely stamped with the characters of sovereign good, that they are
calculated to benefit in a certain degree even those who are incapable
of penetrating their profundity. They can tame a savage sophist, like
Thrasymachus in the Republic; humble the arrogance even of those who
are ignorant of their ignorance; make those to become proficients in
political, who will never arrive at theoretic virtue; and, in short, like
the illuminations of deity, wherever there is any portion of aptitude in
their recipients, they purify, irradiate, and exalt.
After this general view of the dialogues of Plato, let us in the next
place consider their preambles, the digressions with which they abound,
and the character of the style in which they are written. With respect to
the first of these, the preambles, however superfluous they may at first
sight appear, they will be found on a closer inspection necessary to the
design of the dialogues which they accompany. Thus the prefatory part of
the Timaeus unfolds, in images agreeably to the Pythagoric custom, the
theory of the world; and the first part of the Parmenides, or the
discussion of ideas, is in fact merely a preamble to the second part,
or the speculation of the one; to which however it is essentially
preparatory. Hence, as Plutarch says, when he speaks of Plato's dialogue
on the Atlantic island: These preambles are superb gates and magnificent
courts with which he purposely embellishes his great edifices, that
nothing may be wanting to their beauty, and that all may be equally
splendid. He acts, as Dacier well observes, like a great prince, who,
when he builds a sumptuous palace, adorns (in the language of Pindar) the
vestibule with golden pillars. For it is fit that what is first seen
should be splendid and magnificent, and should as it were perspicuously
announce all that grandeur which afterwards presents itself to the view.
With respect to the frequent digressions in his dialogues, these also,
when accurately examined, will be found to be no less subservient to the
leading design of the dialogues in which they are introduced; at the same
time that they afford a pleasing relaxation to the mind from the labor of
severe investigation. Hence Plato, by the most happy and enchanting art,
contrives to lead the reader to the temple of Truth through the delightful
groves and valleys of the Graces. In short, this circuitous course, when
attentively considered, will be found to be the shortest road by which he
could conduct the reader to the desired end: for in accomplishing this it
is necessary to regard not that road, which is most straight in the
nature of things, or abstractedly considered, but that which is most
direct in the progressions of human understanding.
With respect to the style of Plato, though it forms in reality the
most inconsiderable part of the merit of his writings, style in all
philosophical works being the last thing that should be attended to, yet
even in this Plato may contend for the palm of excellence with the most
renowned masters of diction. Hence we find that his style was the
admiration of the finest writers of antiquity. According to Ammianus,
Jupiter himself would not speak otherwise, if he were to converse in the
Attic tongue. Aristotle considered his style as a medium between poetry
and prose. Cicero no less praises him for the excellence of his diction
than the profundity of his conceptions; and Longinus calls him with
respect to his language, the rival of Homer. Hence he is considered by
this prince of critics, as deriving into himself abundant streams from
the Homeric fountain, and is compared by him, in his rivalship of Homer,
to a new antagonist who enters the lists against one that is already the
object of universal admiration.
Notwithstanding this praise, however, Plato has been accused, as Longinus
informs us, of being frequently hurried away as by a certain Bacchic fury
of words to immoderate and unpleasant metaphors, and an allegoric
magnificence of diction. Longinus excuses this by saying that whatever
naturally excels in magnitude possesses very little of purity. For that,
says he, which is in every respect accurate is in danger of littleness.
He adds, "and may not this also be necessary, that those of an abject and
moderate genius, because they never encounter danger, nor aspire after
the summit of excellence, are for the most part without error and remain
in security; but that great things become insecure through their magnitude?"
Indeed it appears to me, that whenever this exuberance, this Bacchic
fury, occurs in the diction of Plato, it is owing to the magnitude of the
inspiring influence of deity with which he is then replete. For that he
sometimes wrote from divine inspiration is evident from his own confession
in the Phaedrus, a great part of which is not so much like an orderly
discourse as a dithyrambic poem. Such a style therefore, as it is the
progeny of divine mania, which, as Plato justly observes, is better than
all human prudence, spontaneously adapts itself to its producing cause,
imitates a supernatural power as far as this can be effected by words,
and thus necessarily becomes magnificent, vehement, and exuberant; for
such are the characteristics of its source. All judges of composition
however, both ancient and modern, are agreed that his style is in general
graceful and pure; and that it is sublime without being impetuous and
rapid. It is indeed no less harmonious than elevated, no less accurate[27]
than magnificent. It combines the force of the greatest orators with the
graces of the first of poets; and in short; is a river to which those
justly celebrated lines of Denham may be most pertinently applied:
Tho' deep, yet clear; tho' gentle, yet not dull;
Strong without rage, without o'erfowing full.
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[27] The reader will see, from the notes on Plato's dialogues, and
particularly from the notes on the Parmenides and Timaeus, that the style
of that philosopher possesses an accuracy which is not to be found in any
modern writer; an accuracy of such a wonderful nature, that the words are
exactly commensurate with the sense. Hence the reader who has happily
penetrated his profundity finds, with astonishment, that another word
could not have been added without being superfluous, nor one word taken
away without injuring the sense. The same observation may also be applied
to the style of Aristotle.
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Having thus considered the philosophy of Plato, given a general view of
his writings, and made some observations on his style, it only now
remains to speak of the following arrangement of his dialogues and
translation of his works, and then, with a few appropriate observations,
to close this Introduction.
As no accurate and scientific arrangement then of these dialogues has
been transmitted to us from the ancients, I was under the necessity of
adopting an arrangement of my own, which I trust is not unscientific,
however inferior it may be to that which was doubtless made, though
unfortunately lost, by the latter interpreters of Plato. In my
arrangement, therefore, I have imitated the order of the universe in
which, as I have already observed, wholes precede parts, and universals
particulars. Hence I have placed those dialogues first which rank as
wholes, or have the relation of a system, and afterwards those in which
these systems are branch out into particulars. Thus, after the First
Alcibiades, which may be called, and appears to have been generally
considered by the ancients an introduction to the whole of Plato's
philosophy, I have placed the Republic and the Laws, which may be said to
comprehend systematically the morals and politics of Plato. After these I
have ranked the Timaeus, which contains the whole of his physiology, and
together with it the Critias, because of its connection with the Timaeus.
The next in order is the Parmenides, which contains a system of his
theology. Thus far this arrangement is conformable to the natural progress
of the human mind in the acquisition of the sublimest knowledge; the
subsequent arrangement principally regards the order of things. After the
Parmenides then, the Sophista, Phaedrus, Greater Hippias, and Banquet,
follow, which may be considered as so many lesser wholes subordinate to
and comprehended in the Parmenides, which, like the universe itself, is a
whole of wholes. For in the Sophista being itself is investigated, in the
Banquet love itself, and in the Phaedrus beauty itself; all which are
intelligible forms, and are consequently contained in the Parmenides, in
which the whole extent of the intelligible is unfolded. The Greater
Hippias is classed with the Phaedrus, because in the latter the whole
series of the beautiful is discussed, and in the former that which
subsists in soul. After these follows the Theaetetus, in which science
considered as subsisting in soul is investigated; science itself,
according to its first subsistence, having been previously celebrated by
Socrates in one part of the Phaedrus. The Politicus and Minos, which
follow next, may be considered as ramifications from the Laws; and, in
short, all the following dialogues either consider more particularly the
dogmas which are systematically comprehended in those already enumerated,
or naturally flow from them as their original source. As it did not
however appear possible to arrange these dialogues which rank as parts in
the same accurate order as those which we considered as whole, it was
thought better to class them either according to their agreement in one
particular circumstance, as the Phaedo, Apology, and Crito, all which
relate to the death of Socrates, and as the Meno and Protagoras, which
relate to the question whether virtue can be taught; or according to
their agreement in character, as the Lesser Hippias and Euthydemus, which
are anatreptic, and the Theages, Laches, and Lysis, which are maieutic
dialogues. The Cratylus is ranked in the last place, not so much because
the subject of it is etymology, as because a great part of it is deeply
theological; for by this arrangement, after having ascended to all the
divine orders and their ineffable principle in the Parmenides, and thence
descended in a regular series to the human soul in the subsequent
dialogues, the reader is again led back to deity in this dialogue, and
thus imitates the order which all beings observe, that of incessantly
returning to the principles whence they flew.
After the dialogues[28] follow the Epistles of Plato, which are in every
respect worthy that prince of all true philosophers. They are not only
written with great elegance, and occasionally with magnificence of
diction, but with all the becoming dignity of a mind conscious of its
superior endowments, and all the authority of a master in philosophy.
They are likewise replete with many admirable political observations,
and contain some of his most abstruse dogmas, which though delivered
enigmatically, yet the manner in which they are delivered, elucidates at
the same time that it is elucidated by what is said of these dogmas in
his more theological dialogues.
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[28] As I profess to give the reader a translation of the genuine works
of Plato only, I have not translated the Axiochus, Demodoeus, Sisyphus,
&c. as these are evidently spurious dialogues.
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With respect, to the following translation, it is necessary to observe, in
the first place, than the numbers of legitimate dialogues of Plato is
fifty-five; for though the Republic forms but one treatise, and the Laws
another, yet the former consists of ten, and the latter of twelve books,
and each of these books is a dialogue. Hence, as there are thirty-three
dialogues, besides the Laws and the Republic, fifty-five will, as we have
said, be the amount of the whole. Of these fifty-five, the nine following
have been translated by Mr. Sydenham; viz. the First and Second Alcibiades,
the Greater and Lesser Hippias, the Banquet (except the speech of
Alcibiades), the Philebus, the Meno, the Io, and the Rivals.[29] I have
already observed, and with deep regret, that this excellent though
unfortunate scholar died before he had made that proficiency in the
philosophy of Plato which might have been reasonably expected from so fair
a beginning. I personally knew him only in the decline of life, when his
mental powers were not only considerably impaired by age, but greatly
injured by calamity. His life had been very stormy; his circumstances, for
many years preceding his death, were indigent; his patrons were by no means
liberal; and his real friends were neither numerous nor affluent. He began
the study of Plato, as he himself informed me, when he had considerably
passed the meridian of life, and with most unfortunate prejudices against
his best disciples, which I attempted to remove during my acquaintance with
him, and partly succeeded in the attempt; but infirmity and death prevented
its completion. Under such circumstances it was not to be expected that he
would fathom the profundity of Plato's conceptions, and arrive at the
summit of philosophic attainments. I saw, however, that his talents and his
natural disposition were such as might have ranked him among the best of
Plato's interpreters, if he had not yielded to the pressure of calamity, if
he had not nourished such baneful prejudices, and if he had not neglected
philosophy in the early part of life. Had this happened, my labors would
have been considerably lessened, or perhaps rendered entirely unnecessary,
and his name would have been transmitted to posterity with undecaying
renown. As this unfortunately did not happen, I have been under the
necessity of diligently examining and comparing with the original all
those parts of the dialogues which he translated, that are more deeply
philosophical, or that contain any thing of the theology of Plato. In
these, as might be expected, I found him greatly deficient; I found him
sometimes mistaking the meaning through ignorance of Plato's more sublime
tenets, and at other times perverting it, in order to favor some opinions
of his own. His translation however of other parts which are not so
abstruse is excellent. In these he not only presents the reader faithfully
with the matter, but likewise with the genuine manner of Plato. The notes
too which accompany the translation of these parts generally exhibit just
criticism and extensive learning, an elegant taste, and a genius naturally
philosophic. Of these notes I have preserved as much as was consistent with
the limits and design of the following work.
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[29] In the notes on the above-mentioned nine dialogues, those written
by Mr. Sydenham are signed S., and those by myself T.
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