Introduction to the Philosophy and Writings of Plato - Thomas Taylor
Of the translation of the Republic by Dr. Spens, it is necessary to observe
that a considerable part of it is very faithfully executed; but that in the
more abstruse parts it is inaccurate; and that it every where abounds with
Scotticisms which offend an English ear, and vulgarisms which are no less
disgraceful to the translator than disgusting to the reader. Suffice it
therefore to say of this version, that I have adopted it wherever I found
it could with propriety be adopted, and given my own translation where it
was otherwise.
Of the ten dialogues translated by Dacier, I can say nothing with
accuracy, because I have no knowledge whatever of the French language;
but if any judgment may be formed of this work, from a translation of it
into English, I will be bold to say that it is by no means literal, and
that he very frequently mistakes the sense of the original. From this
translation therefore I could derive but little assistance; some however
I have derived, and that little I willingly acknowledge. In translating
the rest of Plato's works, and this, as the reader may easily see, form
by far the greatest part of them, I have had no assistance from any
translation except that of Ficinus, the general excellency of which is
well known to every student of Plato, arising not only from his
possessing a knowledge of Platonism superior to that of any translators
that have followed him, but likewise from his having made this
translation from a very valuable manuscript in the Medicean library,
which is now no longer to be found. I have, however, availed myself of
the learned labors of the editors of various dialogues of Plato; such as
the edition of the Rivals, Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, by
Forster; of the First and Second Alcibiades and Hipparchus, by Etwall; of
the Meno, First Alcibiades, Phaedo and Phaedrus, printed at Vienna, 1784;
of the Cratylus and Theaetetus, by Fischer; of the Republic, by Massey;
and of the Euthydemus and Gorgias, by Dr. Routh, president of Magdalen
College, Oxford. This last editor has enriched his edition of these two
dialogues with very valuable and copious philological and critical notes,
in which he has displayed no less learning than judgment, no less
acuteness than taste. He appears indeed to me to be one of the best and
most modest of philologists; and it is to be hoped that he will be
imitated in what he has done by succeeding editors of Plato's text.
If my translation had been made with an eye to the judgment of the many,
it would have been necessary to apologize for its literal exactness.
Had I been anxious to gratify false taste with respect to composition, I
should doubtless have attended less to the precise meaning of the original,
have omitted almost all connective Particles, have divided long periods
into a number of short ones, and branched out the strong and deep river of
Plato's language into smooth-gliding, shallow, and feeble streams; but as
the present work was composed with the hope indeed of benefitting all, but
with an eye to the criticism solely of men of elevated souls, I have
endeavored not to lose a word of the original; and yet at the same time
have attempted to give the translation as much elegance as such verbal
accuracy can be supposed capable of admitting. I have also endeavored to
preserve the manner as well as the matter of my author, being fully
persuaded that no translation deserves applause, in which both these are
not as much as possible preserved.
My principal object in this arduous undertaking has been to unfold all
the abstruse and sublime dogmas of Plato, as they are found dispersed in
his works. Minutely to unravel the art which he employs in the
composition of all his dialogues, and to do full justice to his meaning
in every particular, must be the task of some one who has more leisure,
and who is able to give the works of Plato to the public on a more
extensive plan. In accomplishing this great object, I have presented the
reader in my notes with nearly the substance in English of all the
following manuscript Greek Commentaries and Scholia on Plato; viz. of the
Commentaries of Proclus on the Parmenides and First Alcibiades; and of
his Scholia on the Cratylus; of the Scholia of Olympiodorus on the
Phaedo, Gorgias, and Philebus; and of Hermeas on the Phoedrus. To these
are added very copious extracts from the manuscript of Damascius,[30]
Peri Archon, and from the published works of Proclus on the Timeus,
Republic, and Theology of Plato. Of the four first of these manuscripts,
three of which are folio volumes, I have complete copies taken with my
own hand; and of the copious extracts from the others, those from
Olympiodorus on the Gorgias were taken by me from the copy preserved in
the British Museum; those from the same philosopher on the Philebus, and
those from Hermeas on the Phaedrus, and Damascius Peri Archon, from the
copies in the Bodleian library.
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[30] Patricius was one of the very few in modern times who have been
sensible of the great merit of these writings, as is evident from the
extract from the preface to his translation of Proclus's Theological
Elements. (Ferrar. 4to. 1583.) Patricius, prior to this, enumerates the
writings of Proclus, and they are included in his wish that all the
manuscript Greek commentaries on Plato were made public.
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And here gratitude demands that I should publicly acknowledge the very
handsome and liberal manner in which I was received by the University of
Oxford, and by the principal librarian and sub-librarians of the Bodleian
library, during the time that I made the above mentioned extracts. In the
first place I have to acknowledge the very polite attention which was paid
to me by Dr. Jackson,[31] dean of Christ-church. In the second place, the
liberty of attendance at the Bodleian library, and the accommodation which
was there afforded me, by the librarians of that excellent collection,
demand from me no small tribute of praise. And, above all, the very liberal
manner in which I was received by the fellows of New College, with whom I
resided for three weeks, and from whom I experienced even Grecian
hospitality, will, I trust, be as difficult a task for time to obliterate
from my memory, as it would be for me to express it as it deserves.
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[31] I was much pleased to find that this very respectable prelate is a
great admirer of Aristotle, and that extracts from the Commentaries of
Simplicius and Ammonius on the Categories of that philosopher, are read
by his orders in the college of which he is the head.
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With respect to the faults which I may have committed in this translation
(for I am not vain enough to suppose it is without fault), I might plead
as an excuse, that the whole of it has been executed amidst severe
endurance from bodily infirmity and indigent circumstances; and that a
very considerable part of it was accomplished amidst other ills of no
common magnitude, and other labors inimical to such an undertaking. But
whatever may be my errors, I will not fly to calamity for an apology. Let
it be my excuse that the mistakes I may have committed in lesser
particulars, have arisen from my eagerness to seize and promulgate those
great truths in the philosophy and theology of Plato, which though they
have been concealed for ages in oblivion, have a subsistence coeval with
the universe, and will again be restored, and flourish for very extended
periods, through all the infinite revolutions of time.
In the next place, it is necessary to speak concerning the qualifications
requisite in a legitimate student of the philosophy of Plato, previous to
which I shall just notice the absurdity of supposing that a mere knowledge
of the Greek tongue, however great that knowledge may be, is alone
sufficient to the understanding the sublime doctrines of Plato; for a man
might as well think that he can understand Archimedes without a knowledge
of the elements of geometry, merely because he can read him in the
original. Those who entertain such an idle opinion, would do well to
meditate on the profound observation of Heraclitus, "that polymathy does
not teach intellect," ([Greek: Polymathic noon ou didaskei]).
By a legitimate student, then, of the Platonic philosophy, I mean one
who, both from nature and education, is properly qualified for such
an arduous undertaking; that is one who possesses a naturally good
disposition; is sagacious and acute, and is inflamed with an ardent
desire for the acquisition of wisdom and truth; who from his childhood
has been well instructed in the mathematical disciplines; who, besides
this, has spent whole days, and frequently the greater part of the night,
in profound meditation; and, like one triumphantly sailing over a raging
sea, or skillfully piercing through an army of foes, has successfully
encountered an hostile multitude of doubts;--in short, who has never
considered wisdom as a thing of trifling estimation and easy access, but
as that which cannot be obtained without the most generous and severe
endurance, and the intrinsic worth of which surpasses all corporeal good,
far more than the ocean the fleeting bubble which floats on its surface.
To such as are destitute of these requisites, who make the study of words
their sole employment, and the pursuit of wisdom but at best a secondary
thing, who expect to be wise by desultory application for an hour or two
in a day, after the fatigues of business, after mixing with the base
multitude of mankind, laughing with the gay affecting airs of gravity
with the serious, tacitly assenting to every man's opinion, however
absurd, and winking at folly however shameful and base--to such as
these--and, alas! the world is full of such--the sublimest truths must
appear to be nothing more than jargon and reverie, the dreams of a
distempered imagination, or the ebullitions of fanatical faith.
But all this is by no means wonderful, if we consider that two-fold
ignorance is the disease of the many. For they are not only ignorant with
respect to the sublimest knowledge, but they are even ignorant of their
ignorance. Hence they never suspect their want of understanding, but
immediately reject a doctrine which appears at first sight absurd,
because it is too splendid for their bat-like eyes to behold. Or if they
even yield their assent to its truth, their very assent is the result of
the same most dreadful disease of the soul. For they will fancy, says
Plato, that they understand the highest truths, when the very contrary is
really the case. I earnestly therefore entreat men of this description,
not to meddle with any of the profound speculations of the Platonic
philosophy, for it is more dangerous to urge them to such an employment,
than to advise them to follow their sordid avocations with unwearied
assiduity, and toil for wealth with increasing alacrity and vigor; as
they will by this means give free scope to the base habits of their soul,
and sooner suffer that punishment which in such as these must always
precede mental illumination, and be the inevitable consequence of guilt.
It is well said indeed by Lysis, the Pythagorean, that to inculcate
liberal speculations and discourses to those whose morals are turbid and
confused, is just as absurd as to pour pure and transparent water into a
deep well full of mire and clay; for he who does this will only disturb
the mud, and cause the pure water to become defiled. The woods of such,
as the same author beautifully observes, (that is the irrational or
corporeal life), in which these dire passions are nourished, must first
be purified with fire and sword, and every kind of instrument (that is,
through preparatory disciplines, and the political virtues), and reason
must be freed from its slavery to the affections, before any thing useful
can be planted in these savage haunts.
Let not such then presume to explore the regions of Platonic philosophy.
The land is too pure to admit the sordid and the base. The road which
conducts to it is too intricate to be discovered by the unskillful and
stupid, and the journey is too long and laborious to be accomplished by
the effeminate and the timid, by the slave of passion and the dupe of
opinion, by the lover of sense and the despiser of truth. The dangers and
difficulties in the undertaking are such as can be sustained by none but
the most hardy and accomplished adventurers; and he who begins the journey
without the strength of Hercules, or the wisdom and patience of Ulysses,
must be destroyed by the wild beasts of the forest, or perish in the storms
of the ocean; must suffer transmutation into a beast through the magic
power of Circe, or be exiled for life by the detaining charm of Calypso;
and in short must descend into Hades, and wander in its darkness, without
emerging from thence to the bright regions of the morning, or be ruined
by the deadly melody of the Syren's song. To the most skillful traveler,
who pursues the right road with an ardor which no toils can abate, with
a vigilance which no weariness can surprise into negligence, and with
virtue which no temptations can seduce, it exhibits for many years the
appearance of the Ithaca of Ulysses, or the flying Italy of AEneas; for
we no sooner gain a glimpse of the pleasing land which is to be the end
of our journey, than it is suddenly ravished from our view, and we still
find ourselves at a distance from the beloved coast, exposed to the fury
of a stormy sea of doubts.
Abandon then, ye groveling souls, the fruitless design! Pursue with
avidity the beaten road which leads to popular honors and sordid gain,
but relinquish all thoughts of a voyage for which you are totally
unprepared. Do you not perceive what a length of sea separates you from
the royal coast? A sea,
Huge, horrid, vast, where scarce in safety sails
The best built ship, though Jove inspire the gales.
And may we not very justly ask you, similar to the interrogation of
Calypso,
What ships have you, what sailors to convey,
What oars to cut the long laborious way?
I shall only observe further, that the life of Plato, by Olympiodorus, was
prefixed to this translation, in preference to that by Diogenes Laertius,
because the former is the production of a most eminent Platonist, and the
latter of a mere historian, who indiscriminately gave to the public whatever
anecdotes he found in other authors. If the reader combines this short
sketch of the life of Plato with what that philosopher says of himself in
his 7th Epistle, he will be in possession of the most important particulars
about him that can be obtained at present.
EXPLANATIONS OF CERTAIN PLATONIC TERMS
As some apology may be thought necessary for having introduced certain
unusual words of Greek origin, I shall only observe, that, as all arts and
sciences have certain appropriate terms peculiar to themselves, philosophy,
which is the art of arts, and science of sciences, as being the mistress of
both, has certainly a prior and a far superior claim to this privilege. I
have not, however, introduced, I believe, any of these terms without at the
same time sufficiently explaining them; but, lest the contrary should have
taken place, the following explanation of all such terms as I have been
able to recollect, and also of common words used by Platonists in a
peculiar sense, is subjoined for the information of the reader.
Anagogic, [Greek: anagogikos]. Leading on high.
Demiurgus, [Greek: demiourgos]. Jupiter, the artificer of the universe.
Dianoetia. This word is derived from [Greek: dianoia], or that power of
the soul which reasons scientifically, deriving the principles of its
reasoning from intellect. Plato is so uncommonly accurate in his diction,
that this word is very seldom used by him in any other than its primary
sense.
The Divine, [Greek: to Theion], is being subsisting in conjunction with
the one. For all things, except the one, viz. essence, life, and
intellect, are considered by Plato as suspended from and secondary to the
gods. For the gods do not subsist in, but prior to, these, which they
also produce and connect, but are not characterized by these. In many
places, however, Plato calls the participants of the gods by the names of
the gods. For not only the Athenian Guest in the Laws, but also Socrates
in the Phaedrus, calls a divine soul a god. "For," says he, "all the
horses and charioteers of the gods are good," &c. And afterwards, still
more clearly, he adds, "And this is the life of the gods." And not only
this, but he also denominates those nature gods that are always united to
the gods, and which, in conjunction with them, give completion to one
series. He also frequently calls daemons gods, though, according to
essence, they are secondary to and subsist about the gods. For in the
Phaedrus, Timaeus, and other dialogues, he extends the appellation of
gods as far as the daemons. And what is still more paradoxical than all
this, he does not refuse to call some men gods; as, for instance, the
Elean Guest in the Sophista. From all this, therefore, we must infer that
with respect to the word god, one thing which is thus denominated is
simply deity; another is so according to union; a third, according to
participation; a fourth, according to contact; and a fifth, according to
similitude. Thus every superessential nature is primarily a god; but
every intellectual nature is so according to union. And again, every
divine soul is a god according to participation; but divine daemons are
gods according to contact with the gods; and the souls of men obtain this
appellation through similitude. Each of these, however, except the first,
is as we have said, rather divine than a god; for the Athenian Guest in
the Laws, calls intellect itself divine. But that which is divine is
secondary to the first deity, in the same manner as the united is to the
one; that which is intellectual to intellect; and that which is animated
to soul. Indeed, things more uniform and simple always precede, and the
series of beings ends in the one itself.
Doxastic. This word is derived from doxa, opinion, and signifies that
which is apprehended by opinion, or that power which is the extremity of
the rational soul. This power knows the universal in particulars, as that
every man is a rational animal; but it knows not the dioti, or why a
thing is, but only the oti, or that it is.
The Eternal, [Greek: To aionion], that which has a never-ending subsistence,
without any connection with time; or, as Plotinus profoundly defines it,
infinite life at once total and full.
That which is generated, [Greek: to geneton]. That which has not the
whole of its essence or energy subsisting at once without temporal
dispersion.
Generation, [Greek: genesis]. An essence composite and multiform, and
conjoined with time. This is the proper signification of the word; but it
is used symbolically by Plato, and also by theologists more ancient than
Plato, for the sake of indication. For as Proclus beautifully observes
(in MS. Comment in Parmenidem), "Fables call the ineffable unfolding into
light through causes, generation." "Hence," he adds in the Orphic
writings, the first cause is denominated time; for where there is
generation, according to its proper signification, there also there
is time."
A Guest, [Greek: Xenos]. This word, in its more ample signification in
the Greek, denotes a stranger, but properly implies one who receives
another, or is himself received at an entertainment. In the following
dialogues, therefore, wherever one of the speakers is introduced as a
Xenos, I have translated this word guest, as being more conformable to
the genius of Plato's dialogues, which may be justly called rich mental
banquets, and consequently the speakers in them may be considered as so
many guests. Hence in the Timaeus, the persons of that dialogue are
expressly spoken of as guests.
Hyparxis, [Greek: uparxis]. The first principle or foundation, as it
were, of the essence of a thing. Hence also, it is the summit of essence.
Idiom, [Greek: Idioma]. The characteristic peculiarity of a thing.
The Immortal, [Greek: To athanaton]. According to Plato, there are many
orders of immortality, pervading from on high to the last of things; and
the ultimate echo, as it were, of immorality is seen in the perpetuity of
the mundane wholes, which according to the doctrine of the Elean Guest in
the Politicus, they participate from the Father of the universe. For both
the being and the life of every body depend on another cause; since body
is not itself naturally adapted to connect, or adorn, or preserve itself.
But the immortality of partial souls, such as ours, is more manifest and
more perfect than this of the perpetual bodies in the universe; as is
evident from the many demonstrations which are given of it in the Phaedo,
and in the 10th book of the Republic. For the immortality of partial
souls has a more principal subsistence, as possessing in itself the cause
of eternal permanency. But prior to both these is the immortality of
daemons; for these neither verge to mortality, nor are they filled with
the nature of things which are generated and corrupted. More venerable,
however, than these, and essentially transcending them, is the
immortality of divine souls, which are primarily self-motive, and contain
the fountains and principles of the life which is attributed about
bodies, and through which bodies participate of renewed immortality. And
prior to all these is the immortality of the gods: for Diotima in the
Banquet does not ascribe an immortality of this kind to demons. Hence
such an immortality as this is separate and exempt from wholes. For,
together with the immortality of the gods, eternity subsists, which is
the fountain of all immortality and life, as well that life which is
perpetual, as that which is dissipated into nonentity. In short,
therefore, the divine immortal is that which is generative and connective
of perpetual life. For it is not immortal, as participating of life, but
as supplying divine life, and deifying life itself.
Imparticipable, [Greek: To amethekton]. That which is not consubsistent
with an inferior nature. Thus imparticipable intellect is an intellect
which is not consubsistent with soul.
Intellectual Projection, [Greek: noera epibole]. As the perception of
intellect is immediate, being a darting forth, as it were, directly to
its proper objects, this direct intuition is expressed by the term
projection.
The Intelligible, [Greek: To noeton]. This word in Plato and Platonic
writers has a various signification: for, in the first place, whatever is
exempt from sensibles, and has its essence separate from them, is said to
be intelligible, and in this sense soul is intelligible. In the second
place, intellect, which is prior to soul, is intelligible. In the third
place, that which is more ancient than intellect, which replenishes
intelligence and is essentially perfective of it, is called intelligible;
and this is the intelligible which Timaeus in Plato places in the order
of a paradigm, prior to the demiurgic intellect and intellectual energy.
But beyond these is the divine intelligible, which is defined according
to divine union and hyparxis. For this is intelligible as the object of
desire to intellect, as giving perfection to and containing it, and as
the completion of being. The highest intelligible, therefore, is that
which is the hyparxis of the gods; the second, that which is true being,
and the first essence; the third, intellect, and all intellectual life;
and the fourth, the order belonging to soul.
Logismos, reasoning. When applied to divinity as by Plato in the Timaeus,
signifies a distributive cause of things.
On account of which; with reference to which; through which; according to
which, from which; or in which; viz. [Greek: di o, uph' ou, di ou, kath'
o, ex ou]. By the first of these terms, Plato is accustomed to denominate
the final cause; by the second the paradigmatic; by the third, the
demiurgic; by the fourth, the instrumental; by the fifth, form; and by
the sixth, matter.
Orectic. This word is derived from [Greek: orexis], appetite.
Paradigm, [Greek: paradeigma]. A pattern, or that with reference to which
a thing is made.
The perpetual, [Greek: to aidion]. That which subsists forever, but through
a connection with time.
A Politician, [Greek: politikos]. This word, as Mr. Sydenham justly
observes in his notes in the Rivals, is of a very large and extensive
import as used by Plato, and the other ancient writers on politics: for
it includes all those statesmen or politicians in aristocracies and
democracies, who were, either for life, or for a certain time, invested
with the whole or a part of kingly authority, and the power thereto
belonging. See the Politicus.
Prudence, [Greek: Phronesis]. This word frequently means in Plato and
Platonic writers, the habit of discerning what is good in all moral
actions, and frequently signifies intelligence, or intellectual
Perception. The following admirable explanation of this word is given by
Jamblichus Prudence having a precedaneous subsistence, receives its
generation from a pure and perfect intellect. Hence it looks to intellect
itself, is perfected by it, and has this as the measure and most
beautiful paradigm of all its energies. If also we have any communion
with the gods, it is especially effected by this virtue; and through this
we are in the highest degree assimilated to them. The knowledge too of
such things as are good, profitable, and beautiful, and of the contraries
to these, is obtained by this virtue; and the judgment and correction of
works proper to be done are by this directed. And in short it is a
certain governing leader of men, and of the whole arrangement of their
nature; and referring cities and houses, and the particular life, of
every one to a divine paradigm, it forms them according to the best
similitude; obliterating some things and purifying others. So that
prudence renders its possessors similar to divinity. Jamblic. apud.
Stob. p. 141.