Roman History, Books I III - Titus Livius
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The Roman youths were bitterly indignant at this, and the matter began
unmistakably to point to open violence. Romulus in order to provide a
fitting opportunity and place for this, dissembling his resentment,
with this purpose in view, instituted games to be solemnized every
year in honour of Neptunus Equester, which he called Consualia. He
then ordered the show to be proclaimed among the neighbouring peoples;
and the Romans prepared to solemnize it with all the pomp with which
they were then acquainted or were able to exhibit, in order to make
the spectacle famous, and an object of expectation. Great numbers
assembled, being also desirous of seeing the new city, especially all
the nearest peoples, the Caeninenses, Crustumini, and Antemnates: the
entire Sabine population attended with their wives and children. They
were hospitably invited to the different houses: and, when they saw
the position of the city, its fortified walls, and how crowded with
houses it was, they were astonished that the power of Rome had
increased so rapidly. When the time of the show arrived, and their
eyes and minds alike were intent upon it, then, according to
preconcerted arrangement, a disturbance was made, and, at a given
signal, the Roman youths rushed in different directions to carry off
the unmarried women. A great number were carried off at hap-hazard, by
those into whose hands they severally fell: some of the common people,
to whom the task had been assigned, conveyed to their homes certain
women of surpassing beauty, who were destined for the leading
senators. They say that one, far distinguished beyond the rest in form
and beauty, was carried off by the party of a certain Talassius, and
that, when several people wanted to know to whom they were carrying
her, a cry was raised from time to time, to prevent her being
molested, that she was being carried to Talassius: and that from this
the word was used in connection with marriages. The festival being
disturbed by the alarm thus caused, the sorrowing parents of the
maidens retired, complaining of the violated compact of hospitality,
and invoking the god, to whose solemn festival and games they had
come, having been deceived by the pretence of religion and good faith.
Nor did the maidens entertain better hopes for themselves, or feel
less indignation. Romulus, however, went about in person and pointed
out that what had happened was due to the pride of their fathers,
in that they had refused the privilege of intermarriage to their
neighbours; but that, notwithstanding, they would be lawfully wedded,
and enjoy a share of all their possessions and civil rights, and--a
thing dearer than all else to the human race--the society of their
common children: only let them calm their angry feelings, and bestow
their affections on those on whom fortune had bestowed their bodies.
Esteem (said he) often arose subsequent to wrong: and they would find
them better husbands for the reason that each of them would endeavour,
to the utmost of his power, after having discharged, as far as his
part was concerned, the duty of a husband, to quiet the longing for
country and parents. To this the blandishments of the husbands were
added, who excused what had been done on the plea of passion and love,
a form of entreaty that works most successfully upon the feelings of
women.[9]
By this time the minds of the maidens were considerably soothed, but
their parents, especially by putting on the garb of mourning, and by
their tears and complaints, stirred up the neighbouring states. Nor
did they confine their feelings of indignation to their own home
only, but they flocked from all quarters to Titus Tatius, king of the
Sabines, and embassies crowded thither, because the name of Tatius
was held in the greatest esteem in those quarters. The Caeninenses,
Crustumini, and Antemnates were the people who were chiefly affected
by the outrage. As Tatius and the Sabines appeared to them to be
acting in too dilatory a manner, these three peoples by mutual
agreement among themselves made preparations for war unaided. However,
not even the Crustumini and Antemnates bestirred themselves with
sufficient activity to satisfy the hot-headedness and anger of the
Caeninenses: accordingly the people of Caenina, unaided, themselves
attacked the Roman territory. But Romulus with his army met them
while they were ravaging the country in straggling parties, and in
a trifling engagement convinced them that anger unaccompanied by
strength is fruitless. He routed their army and put it to flight,
followed in pursuit of it when routed, cut down their king in battle
and stripped him of his armour, and, having slain the enemy's leader,
took the city at the first assault. Then, having led back his
victorious army, being a man both distinguished for his achievements,
and one equally skilful at putting them in the most favourable light,
he ascended the Capitol, carrying suspended on a portable frame,
cleverly contrived for that purpose, the spoils of the enemy's
general, whom he had slain: there, having laid them down at the foot
of an oak held sacred by the shepherds, at the same time that he
presented the offering, he marked out the boundaries for a temple of
Jupiter, and bestowed a surname on the god. "Jupiter Feretrius," said
he, "I, King Romulus, victorious over my foes, offer to thee these
royal arms, and dedicate to thee a temple within those quarters, which
I have just now marked out in my mind, to be a resting-place for the
spolia opima, which posterity, following my example, shall bring
hither on slaying the kings or generals of the enemy." This is the
origin of that temple, the first that was ever consecrated at Rome. It
was afterward the will of the gods that neither the utterances of
the founder of the temple, in which he solemnly declared that his
posterity would bring such spoils thither, should be spoken in vain,
and that the honour of the offering should not be rendered common
owing to the number of those who enjoyed it. In the course of so many
years and so many wars the spolia opima were only twice gained: so
rare has been the successful attainment of this honour.[10]
While the Romans were thus engaged in those parts, the army of the
Antemnates made a hostile attack upon the Roman territories, seizing
the opportunity when they were left unguarded. Against these in like
manner a Roman legion was led out in haste and surprised them while
straggling in the country. Thus the enemy were routed at the first
shout and charge: their town was taken: Romulus, amid his rejoicings
at this double victory, was entreated by his wife Hersilia, in
consequence of the importunities of the captured women, to pardon
their fathers and admit them to the privileges of citizenship; that
the commonwealth could thus be knit together by reconciliation.
The request was readily granted. After that he set out against the
Crustumini, who were beginning hostilities: in their case, as their
courage had been damped by the disasters of others, the struggle was
less keen. Colonies were sent to both places: more, however, were
found to give in their names for Crustuminum, because of the fertility
of the soil. Great numbers also migrated from thence to Rome, chiefly
of the parents and relatives of the women who had been carried off.
The last war broke out on the part of the Sabines, and this was by far
the most formidable: for nothing was done under the influence of anger
or covetousness, nor did they give indications of hostilities before
they had actually begun them. Cunning also was combined with prudence.
Spurius Tarpeius was in command of the Roman citadel: his maiden
daughter, who at the time had gone by chance outside the walls to
fetch water for sacrifice, was bribed by Tatius, to admit some armed
soldiers into the citadel. After they were admitted, they crushed her
to death by heaping their arms upon her: either that the citadel might
rather appear to have been taken by storm, or for the sake of setting
forth a warning, that faith should never on any occasion be kept with
a betrayer. The following addition is made to the story: that, as the
Sabines usually wore golden bracelets of great weight on their left
arm and rings of great beauty set with precious stones, she bargained
with them for what they had on their left hands; and that therefore
shields were heaped upon her instead of presents of gold. Some say
that, in accordance with the agreement that they should deliver up
what was on their left hands, she expressly demanded their shields,
and that, as she seemed to be acting treacherously, she herself was
slain by the reward she had chosen for herself.
Be that as it may, the Sabines held the citadel, and on the next day,
when the Roman army, drawn up in order of battle, had occupied all the
valley between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills, they did not descend
from thence into the plain until the Romans, stimulated by resentment
and the desire of recovering the citadel, advanced up hill to meet
them. The chiefs on both sides encouraged the fight, on the side
of the Sabines Mettius Curtius, on the side of the Romans Hostius
Hostilius. The latter, in the front of the battle, on unfavourable
ground, supported the fortunes of the Romans by his courage and
boldness. When Hostius fell, the Roman line immediately gave way,
and, being routed, was driven as far as the old gate of the Palatium.
Romulus himself also, carried away by the crowd of fugitives, cried,
uplifting his arms to heaven: "O Jupiter, it was at the bidding of thy
omens, that here on the Palatine I laid the first foundations for the
city. The citadel, purchased by crime, is now in possession of the
Sabines: thence they are advancing hither in arms, having passed the
valley between. But do thou, O father of gods and men, keep back the
enemy from hence at least, dispel the terror of the Romans, and check
their disgraceful flight. On this spot I vow to build a temple to thee
as Jupiter Stator, to be a monument to posterity that the city has
been preserved by thy ready aid." Having offered up these prayers,
as if he had felt that they had been heard, he cried: "From this
position, O Romans, Jupiter, greatest and best, bids you halt and
renew the fight." The Romans halted as if ordered by a voice from
heaven. Romulus himself hastened to the front. Mettius Curtius, on the
side of the Sabines, had rushed down from the citadel at the head of
his troops and driven the Romans in disordered array over the whole
space of ground where the Forum now is. He had almost reached the
gate of the Palatium, crying out: "We have conquered our perfidious
friends, our cowardly foes: now they know that fighting with men is a
very different thing from ravishing maidens." Upon him, as he uttered
these boasts, Romulus made an attack with a band of his bravest
youths. Mettius then happened to be fighting on horseback: on that
account his repulse was easier. When he was driven back, the Romans
followed in pursuit: and the remainder of the Roman army, fired by the
bravery of the king, routed the Sabines. Mettius, his horse taking
fright at the noise of his pursuers, rode headlong into a morass: this
circumstance drew off the attention of the Sabines also at the danger
of so high a personage. He indeed, his own party beckoning and calling
to him, gaining heart from the encouraging shouts of many of his
friends, made good his escape. The Romans and Sabines renewed the
battle in the valley between the two hills: but the advantage rested
with the Romans.
At this crisis the Sabine women, from the outrage on whom the war had
arisen, with dishevelled hair and torn garments, the timidity natural
to women being overcome by the sense of their calamities, were
emboldened to fling themselves into the midst of the flying weapons,
and, rushing across, to part the incensed combatants and assuage their
wrath: imploring their fathers on the one hand and their husbands
on the other, as fathers-in-law and sons-in-law, not to besprinkle
themselves with impious blood, nor to fix the stain of murder on their
offspring, the one side on their grandchildren, the other on their
children. "If," said they, "you are dissatisfied with the relationship
between you, and with our marriage, turn your resentment against us;
it is we who are the cause of war, of wounds and bloodshed to our
husbands and parents: it will be better for us to perish than to
live widowed or orphans without one or other of you." This incident
affected both the people and the leaders; silence and sudden quiet
followed; the leaders thereupon came forward to conclude a treaty;
and not only concluded a peace, but formed one state out of two. They
united the kingly power, but transferred the entire sovereignty to
Rome. Rome having thus been made a double state, that some benefit at
least might be conferred on the Sabines, they were called Quirites
from Cures. To serve as a memorial of that battle, they called the
place--where Curtius, after having emerged from the deep morass, set
his horse in shallow water--the Lacus Curtius.[11]
This welcome peace, following suddenly on so melancholy a war,
endeared the Sabine women still more to their husbands and parents,
and above all to Romulus himself. Accordingly, when dividing the
people into thirty curiae, he called the curiae after their names.
While the number of the women were undoubtedly considerably greater
than this, it is not recorded whether they were chosen for their age,
their own rank or that of their husbands, or by lot, to give names
to the curiae. At the same time also three centuries of knights were
enrolled: the Ramnenses were so called from Romulus, the Titienses
from Titus Tatius: in regard to the Luceres, the meaning of the name
and its origin is uncertain.[12] From that time forward the two kings
enjoyed the regal power not only in common, but also in perfect
harmony.
Several years afterward, some relatives of King Tatius ill-treated
the Ambassadors of the Laurentines, and on the Laurentines beginning
proceedings according to the rights of nations, the influence and
entreaties of his friends had more weight with Tatius. In this manner
he drew upon himself the punishment that should have fallen upon them:
for, having gone to Lavinium on the occasion of a regularly recurring
sacrifice, he was slain in a disturbance which took place there. They
say that Romulus resented this less than the event demanded, either
because partnership in sovereign power is never cordially kept up, or
because he thought that he had been deservedly slain. Accordingly,
while he abstained from going to war, the treaty between the cities
of Rome and Lavinium was renewed, that at any rate the wrongs of the
ambassadors and the murder of the king might be expiated.
With these people, indeed, there was peace contrary to expectations:
but another war broke out much nearer home and almost at the city's
gates. The Fidenates,[13] being of opinion that a power in too close
proximity to themselves was gaining strength, hastened to make war
before the power of the Romans should attain the greatness it was
evidently destined to reach. An armed band of youths was sent into
Roman territory and all the territories between the city and the
Fidenae was ravaged. Then, turning to the left, because on the right
the Tiber was a barrier against them, they continued to ravage the
country, to the great consternation of the peasantry: the sudden
alarm, reaching the city from the country, was the first announcement
of the invasion. Romulus aroused by this--for a war so near home could
not brook delay--led out his army, and pitched his camp a mile from
Fidenae. Having left a small garrison there, he marched out with all
his forces and gave orders that a part of them should lie in ambush in
a spot hidden amid bushes planted thickly around; he himself advancing
with the greater part of the infantry and all the cavalry, by riding
up almost to the very gates, drew out the enemy--which was just what
he wanted--by a mode of battle of a disorderly and threatening nature.
The same tactics on the part of the cavalry caused the flight, which
it was necessary to pretend, to appear less surprising: and when, as
the cavalry appeared undecided whether to make up its mind to fight or
flee, the infantry also retreated--the enemy, pouring forth suddenly
through the crowded gates, were drawn toward the place of ambuscade,
in their eagerness to press on and pursue, after they had broken the
Roman line. Thereupon the Romans, suddenly arising, attacked the
enemy's line in flanks; the advance from the camp of the standards of
those, who had been left behind on guard, increased the panic: thus
the Fidenates, smitten with terror from many quarters, took to flight
almost before Romulus and the cavalry who accompanied him could wheel
round: and those who a little before had been in pursuit of men who
pretended flight, made for the town again in much greater disorder,
seeing that their flight was real. They did not, however, escape the
foe: the Romans, pressing closely on their rear, rushed in as if it
were in one body, before the doors of the gates could be shut against
them.
The minds of the inhabitants of Veii,[14] being exasperated by the
infectious influence of the Fidenatian war, both from the tie of
kinship--for the Fidenates also were Etruscans--and because the very
proximity of the scene of action, in the event of the Roman arms being
directed against all their neighbours, urged them on, they sallied
forth into the Roman territories, rather with the object of plundering
than after the manner of a regular war. Accordingly, without pitching
a camp, or waiting for the enemy's army, they returned to Veii, taking
with them the booty they had carried off from the lands; the Roman
army, on the other hand, when they did not find the enemy in the
country, being ready and eager for a decisive action, crossed the
Tiber. And when the Veientes heard that they were pitching a camp, and
intended to advance to the city, they came out to meet them that they
might rather decide the matter in the open field, than be shut up and
have to fight from their houses and walls. In this engagement the
Roman king gained the victory, his power being unassisted by any
stratagem, by the unaided strength of his veteran army: and having
pursued the routed enemies up to their walls, he refrained from
attacking the city, which was strongly fortified and well defended
by its natural advantages: on his return he laid waste their lands,
rather from a desire of revenge than of booty. The Veientes, humbled
by that loss no less than by the unsuccessful issue of the battle,
sent ambassadors to Rome to sue for peace. A truce for one hundred
years was granted them, after they had been mulcted in a part of their
territory. These were essentially the chief events of the reign of
Romulus, in peace and in war, none of which seemed inconsistent with
the belief of his divine origin, or of his deification after death,
neither the spirit he showed in recovering his grandfather's kingdom,
nor his wisdom in building a city, and afterward strengthening it by
the arts of war and peace. For assuredly it was by the power that
Romulus gave it that it became so powerful, that for forty years after
it enjoyed unbroken peace. He was, however, dearer to the people than
to the fathers: above all others he was most beloved by the soldiers:
of these he kept three hundred, whom he called Celeres, armed to serve
as a body-guard not only in time of war but also of peace.
Having accomplished these works deserving of immortality, while he was
holding an assembly of the people for reviewing his army, in the plain
near the Goat's pool, a storm suddenly came on, accompanied by loud
thunder and lightning, and enveloped the king in so dense a mist, that
it entirely hid him from the sight of the assembly. After this Romulus
was never seen again upon earth. The feeling of consternation having
at length calmed down, and the weather having become clear and fine
again after so stormy a day, the Roman youth seeing the royal seat
empty--though they readily believed the words of the fathers who
had stood nearest him, that he had been carried up to heaven by the
storm--yet, struck as it were with the fear of being fatherless, for a
considerable time preserved a sorrowful silence. Then, after a few had
set the example, the whole multitude saluted Romulus as a god, the son
of a god, the king and parent of the Roman city; they implored his
favour with prayers, that with gracious kindness he would always
preserve his offspring. I believe that even then there were some, who
in secret were convinced that the king had been torn in pieces by the
hands of the fathers--for this rumour also spread, but it was very
doubtfully received; admiration for the man, however, and the awe felt
at the moment, gave greater notoriety to the other report. Also by the
clever idea of one individual, additional confirmation is said to have
been attached to the occurrence. For Proculus Julius, while the state
was still troubled at the loss of the king, and incensed against the
senators, a weighty authority, as we are told, in any matter however
important, came forward into the assembly. "Quirites," said he,
"Romulus, the father of this city, suddenly descending from heaven,
appeared to me this day at daybreak. While I stood filled with dread,
and religious awe, beseeching him to allow me to look upon him face to
face, 'Go,' said he, 'tell the Romans, that the gods so will, that
my Rome should become the capital of the world. Therefore let them
cultivate the art of war, and let them know and so hand it down to
posterity, that no human power can withstand the Roman arms.' Having
said this, he vanished up to heaven." It is surprising what credit was
given to that person when he made the announcement, and how much the
regret of the common people and army for the loss of Romulus was
assuaged when the certainty of his immortality was confirmed.[15]
Meanwhile[16] contention for the throne and ambition engaged the minds
of the fathers; the struggle was not as yet carried on by individuals,
by violence or contending factions, because, among a new people, no
one person was pre-eminently distinguished; the contest was carried on
between the different orders. The descendants of the Sabines wished a
king to be elected from their own body, lest, because there had been
no king from their own party since the death of Tatius, they might
lose their claim to the crown although both were on an equal footing.
The old Romans spurned the idea of a foreign prince. Amid this
diversity of views, however, all were anxious to be under the
government of a king, as they had not yet experienced the delights of
liberty. Fear then seized the senators, lest, as the minds of many
surrounding states were incensed against them, some foreign power
should attack the state, now without a government, and the army, now
without a leader. Therefore, although they were agreed that there
should be some head, yet none could bring himself to give way to
another. Accordingly, the hundred senators divided the government
among themselves, ten decuries being formed, and the individual
members who were to have the chief direction of affairs being chosen
into each decury.[17] Ten governed; one only was attended by the
lictors and with the insignia of authority: their power was limited to
the space of five days, and conferred upon all in rotation, and the
interval between the government of a king lasted a year. From this
fact it was called an interregnum, a term which is employed even now.
Then the people began to murmur, that their slavery was multiplied,
and that they had now a hundred sovereigns instead of one, and they
seemed determined to submit to no authority but that of a king, and
that one appointed by themselves. When the fathers perceived that such
schemes were on foot, thinking it advisable to offer them, without
being asked, what they were sure to lose, they conciliated the
good-will of the people by yielding to them the supreme power, yet in
such a manner as to surrender no greater privilege than they reserved
to themselves. For they decreed, that when the people had chosen a
king, the election should be valid, if the senate gave the sanction of
their authority. And even to this day the same forms are observed in
proposing laws and magistrates, though their power has been taken
away; for before the people begin to vote, the senators ratify their
choice, even while the result of the elections is still uncertain.
Then the interrex, having summoned an assembly of the people,
addressed them as follows: "Do you, Quirites, choose yourselves a
king, and may this choice prove fortunate, happy, and auspicious; such
is the will of the fathers. Then, if you shall choose a prince worthy
to be reckoned next after Romulus, the fathers will ratify your
choice." This concession was so pleasing to the people, that, not to
appear outdone in generosity, they only voted and ordained that the
senate should determine who should be king at Rome.