The History of Rome; Books Nine to Twenty Six - Titus Livius
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36. They then threw the baggage in a heap in the centre, and, with
their arms prepared for battle, formed their line, each falling into
his post. There was now but a small interval between the two armies,
and both stood, waiting until the shout and onset should be begun by
their adversary. Neither party had any inclination to fight, and they
would have separated, and taken different roads, unhurt and untouched,
but that each had a dread of being harassed, in retreat, by the other.
Notwithstanding this shyness and reluctance, an engagement unavoidably
began, but spiritless, and with a shout which discovered neither
resolution nor steadiness; nor did any move a foot from his post. The
Roman consul, then, in order to infuse life into the action, ordered a
few troops of cavalry to advance out of the line and charge: most of
whom being thrown from their horses and the rest put in disorder,
several parties ran forward, both from the Samnite line, to cut off
those who had fallen, and from the Roman, to protect their friends. In
consequence the battle became a little more brisk, but the Samnites
had come forward with more briskness, and also in greater numbers, and
the disordered cavalry, with their affrighted horses, trod down their
own party who came to their relief. Flight commencing in this quarter,
caused the whole Roman line to turn their backs. And now the Samnites
had no employment for their arms but against the rear of a flying
enemy, when the consul, galloping on before his men to the gate of the
camp, posted there a body of cavalry, with orders to treat as an enemy
any person who should make towards the rampart, whether Roman or
Samnite; and, placing himself in the way of his men, as they pressed
in disorder towards the camp, denounced threats to the same purport:
"Whither are you going, soldiers?" said he; "here also you will find
both men and arms; nor, while your consul lives, shall you pass the
rampart, unless victorious. Choose therefore which you will prefer,
fighting against your own countrymen, or the enemy." While the consul
was thus speaking the cavalry gathered round, with the points of their
spears presented, and ordered the infantry to return to the fight. Not
only his own brave spirit, but fortune likewise aided the consul, for
the Samnites did not push their advantage; so that he had time to
wheel round his battalions, and to change his front from the camp
towards the enemy. The men then began to encourage each other to
return to the battle, while the centurions snatched the ensigns from
the standard-bearers and bore them forward, pointing out to the
soldiers the enemy, coming on in a hurry, few in number, and with
their ranks disordered. At the same time the consul, with his hands
lifted up towards heaven, and raising his voice so as to be heard at a
distance, vowed a temple to Jupiter Stator, if the Roman army should
rally from flight, and, renewing the battle, cut down and defeat the
Samnites. All divisions of the army, now, united their efforts to
restore the fight; officers, soldiers, the whole force, both of
cavalry and infantry; even the powers of heaven seemed to have looked,
with favour, on the Roman cause; so speedily was a thorough change
effected in the fortune of the day, the enemy being repulsed from the
camp, and, in a short time, driven back to the spot where the battle
had commenced. Here they stopped, being obstructed by the heap of
baggage, lying in their way, where they had thrown it together; and
then, to prevent the plundering of their effects, formed round them a
circle of troops. On this, the infantry assailed them vigorously in
front, while the cavalry, wheeling, fell on their rear: and, being
thus enclosed between the two, they were all either slain, or taken
prisoners. The number of the prisoners was seven thousand two hundred,
who were all sent under the yoke; the killed amounted to four thousand
eight hundred. The victory did not prove a joyous one, even on the
side of the Romans: when the consul took an account of the loss
sustained in the two days, the number returned, of soldiers lost, was
seven thousand three hundred. During these transactions in Apulia, the
Samnites with the other army having attempted to seize on Iteramna, a
Roman colony situated on the Latin road, did not however obtain the
town; whence, after ravaging the country, as they were driving off
spoil, consisting of men and cattle, together with the colonists whom
they had taken, they met the consul returning victorious from Luceria,
and not only lost their booty, but marching in disorder, in a long
train, and heavily encumbered, were themselves cut to pieces. The
consul, by proclamation, summoned the owners to Interamna, to claim
and receive again their property, and leaving his army there, went to
Rome to hold the elections. On his applying for a triumph, that honour
was refused him, because he had lost so many thousands of his
soldiers; and also, because he had sent the prisoners under the yoke
without imposing any conditions.
37. The other consul, Postumius, because there was no employment for
his arms in Samnium, having led over his forces into Etruria, first
laid waste the lands of the Volsinians; and afterwards, on their
marching out to protect their country, gained a decisive victory over
them, at a small distance from their own walls. Two thousand two
hundred of the Etrurians were slain; the proximity of their city
protected the rest. The army was then led into the territory of
Rusella, and there, not only were the lands wasted, but the town
itself taken. More than two thousand men were made prisoners, and
somewhat less than that number killed on the walls. But a peace,
effected that year in Etruria, was still more important and honourable
than the war had been. Three very powerful cities, the chief ones of
Etruria, (Volsinii, Perusia, and Arretium,) sued for peace; and having
stipulated with the consul to furnish clothing and corn for his army,
on condition of being permitted to send deputies to Rome, they
obtained a truce for forty years, and a fine was imposed on each state
of five hundred thousand _asses_,[Footnote: L1614. _11s
8d_] to be immediately paid. When the consul demanded a triumph
from the senate, in consideration of these services, rather to comply
with the general practice, than in hope of succeeding; and when he saw
that one party, his own personal enemies, another party, the friends
of his colleague, refused him the triumph, the latter to console a
similar refusal, some on the plea that he had been rather tardy in
taking his departure from the city; others, that he had passed from
Samnium into Etruria without orders from the senate; he said,
"Conscript fathers, I shall not be so far mindful of your dignity, as
to forget that I am consul. By the same right of office by which I
conducted the war, I shall now have a triumph, when this war has been
brought to a happy conclusion, Samnium and Etruria being subdued, and
victory and peace procured. With these words he left the senate." On
this arose a contention between the plebeian tribunes; some of them
declaring that they would protest against his triumphing in a manner
unprecedented; others, that they would support his pretensions, in
opposition to their colleagues. The affair came at length to be
discussed before the people, and the consul being summoned to attend,
when he represented, that Marcus Horatius and Lucius Valerius, when
consuls, and lately Caius Marcus Rutilus, father of the present
censor, had triumphed, not by direction of the senate, but by that of
the people; he then added that "he would in like manner have laid his
request before the public, had he not known that some plebeian
tribunes, the abject slaves of the nobles, would have obstructed the
law. That the universal approbation and will of the people were and
should be with him equivalent to any order whatsoever." Accordingly,
on the day following, by the support of three plebeian tribunes, in
opposition to the protest of the other seven, and the declared
judgment of the senate, he triumphed; and the people paid every honour
to the day. The historical accounts regarding this year are by no
means consistent; Claudius asserts, that Postumius, after having taken
several cities in Samnium, was defeated and put to flight in Apulia;
and that, being wounded himself, he was driven, with a few attendants,
into Luceria. That the war in Etruria was conducted by Atilius, and
that it was he who triumphed. Fabius writes, that the two consuls
acted in conjunction, both in Samnium and at Luceria; that an army was
led over into Etruria, but by which of the consuls he has not
mentioned; that at Luceria, great numbers were slain on both sides;
and that in that battle, the temple of Jupiter Stator was vowed, the
same vow having been formerly made by Romulus, but the fane only, that
is, the area appropriated for the temple, had been yet consecrated.
However, in this year, the state having been twice bound by the same
vow, it became a matter of religious obligation that the senate should
order the temple to be erected.
38. In the next year, we find a consul, distinguished by the united
splendour of his own and his father's glory, Lucius Papirius Cursor,
as also a war of vast importance, and a victory of such consequence,
as no man, excepting Lucius Papirius, the consul's father, had ever
before obtained over the Samnites. It happened too that these had,
with the same care and pains as on the former occasion, decorated
their soldiers with the richest suits of splendid armour; and they
had, likewise, called in to their aid the power of the gods, having,
as it were, initiated the soldiers, by administering the military
oath, with the solemn ceremonies practised in ancient times, and
levied troops in every part of Samnium, under an ordinance entirely
new, that "if any of the younger inhabitants should not attend the
meeting, according to the general's proclamation, or shall depart
without permission, his head should be devoted to Jupiter." Orders
being then issued, for all to assemble at Aquilonia, the whole
strength of Samnium came together, amounting to forty thousand men.
There a piece of ground, in the middle of the camp, was enclosed with
hurdles and boards, and covered overhead with linen cloth, the sides
being all of an equal length, about two hundred feet. In this place
sacrifices were performed, according to directions read out of an old
linen book, the priest being a very old man, called Ovius Paccius, who
affirmed, that he took these ceremonials from the ancient ritual of
the Samnites, being the same which their ancestors used, when they had
formed the secret design of wresting Capua from the Etrurians. When
the sacrifices were finished, the general ordered a beadle to summon
every one of those who were most highly distinguished by their birth
or conduct: these were introduced singly. Besides the other
exhibitions of the solemnity, calculated to impress the mind with
religious awe, there were, in the middle of the covered enclosure,
altars erected, about which lay the victims slain, and the centurions
stood around with their swords drawn. The soldier was led up to the
altars, rather like a victim, than a performer in the ceremony, and
was bound by an oath not to divulge what he should see and hear in
that place. He was then compelled to swear, in a dreadful kind of
form, containing execrations on his own person, on his family and
race, if he did not go to battle, whithersoever the commanders should
lead; and, if either he himself fled from the field, or, in case he
should see any other flying, did not immediately kill him. At first
some, refusing to take the oath, were put to death round the altars,
and lying among the carcasses of the victims, served afterwards as a
warning to others not to refuse it. When those of the first rank in
the Samnite nation had been bound under these solemnities, the general
nominated ten, whom he desired to choose each a man, and so to proceed
until they should have called up the number of sixteen thousand. This
body, from the covering of the enclosure wherein the nobility had been
thus devoted, was called the linen legion. They were furnished with
splendid armour and plumed helmets, to distinguish them above the
rest. They had another body of forces, amounting to somewhat more than
twenty thousand, not inferior to the linen legion, either in personal
appearance, or renown in war, or their equipment. This number,
composing the main strength of the nation, sat down at Aquilonia.
39. On the other side, the consuls set out from the city. First,
Spurius Carvilius, to whom had been decreed the veteran legions, which
Marcus Atilius, the consul of the preceding year, had left in the
territory of Interamna, marched at their head into Samnium; and, while
the enemy were busied in their superstitious rites, and holding their
secret meeting, he took by storm the town of Amiternum. Here were
slain about two thousand eight hundred men; and four thousand two
hundred and seventy were made prisoners. Papirius, with a new army,
which he raised in pursuance of a decree of the senate, made himself
master of the city of Duronia. He took fewer prisoners than his
colleague; but slew much greater numbers. Rich booty was acquired in
both places. The consuls then, overrunning Samnium, and wasting the
province of Atinum with particular severity, arrived, Carvilius at
Cominium, and Papirius at Aquilonia, where the main force of the
Samnites were posted. Here, for some time, there was neither a
cessation of action, nor any vigorous effort. The day was generally
spent in provoking the enemy when quiet, and retiring when they
offered resistance; in menacing, rather than making an attack. By
which practice of beginning, and then desisting, even those trifling
skirmishes were continually left without a decision. The other Roman
camp was twenty miles distant, and the advice of his absent colleague
was appealed to on every thing which he undertook, while Carvilius, on
his part, directed a greater share of his attention to Aquilonia,
where the state of affairs was more critical and important, than to
Cominium, which he himself was besieging. When Papirius had fully
adjusted every measure, preparatory to an engagement, he despatched a
message to his colleague, that "he intended, if the auspices
permitted, to fight the enemy on the day following; and that it would
be necessary that he (Carvilius) should at the same time make an
assault on Cominium, with his utmost force, that the Samnites there
might have no leisure to send any succour to Aquilonia." The messenger
had the day for the performance of his journey, and he returned in the
night, with an answer to the consul, that his colleague approved of
the plan. Papirius, on sending off the messenger, had instantly called
an assembly, where he descanted, at large, on the nature of the war in
general, and on the present mode of equipment adopted by the enemy,
which served for empty parade, rather than for any thing effectual
towards insuring success; for "plumes," he said, "made no wounds; that
a Roman javelin would make its way through shields, however painted
and gilt; and that the army, refulgent from the whiteness of their
tunics, would soon be besmeared with blood, when matters came to be
managed with the sword. His father had formerly cut off, to a man, a
gold and silver army of the Samnites; and such accoutrements had made
a more respectable figure, as spoils, in the hands of the conquering
foe, than as arms in those of the wearers. Perhaps it was allotted, by
destiny, to his name and family, that they should be opposed in
command against the most powerful efforts of the Samnites; and should
bring home spoils, of such beauty, as to serve for ornaments to the
public places. The immortal gods were certainly on his side, on
account of the leagues so often solicited and so often broken.
Besides, if a judgment might be formed of the sentiments of the
deities, they never were more hostile to any army, than to that which,
smeared with the blood of human beings mixed with that of cattle in
their abominable sacrifice, doomed to the twofold resentment of the
gods, dreading on the one hand the divinities, witnesses of the
treaties concluded with the Romans, on the other hand the imprecations
expressed in the oath sworn in contradiction to those treaties, swore
with reluctance, abhorred the oath, and feared at once the gods, their
countrymen, and their enemies."
40. When the consul had recounted these particulars, ascertained from
the information of the deserters, to the soldiers already enraged of
themselves, they then, filled with confidence in both divine and human
aid, with one universal shout, demanded the battle; were dissatisfied
at the action being deferred to the following day; they are impatient
under the intended delay of a day and a night. Papirius, at the third
watch, having received his colleague's letter, arose in silence, and
sent the keeper of the chickens to take the auspices. There was no one
description of men in the camp who felt not earnest wishes for the
fight: the highest and the lowest were equally eager; the general
watching the ardour of the soldiers, and the soldiers that of the
general. This universal zeal spread even to those employed in taking
the auspices; for the chickens having refused to feed, the auspex
ventured to misrepresent the omen, and reported to the consul that
they had fed voraciously.[Footnote: When the auspices were to be
taken from the chickens, the keeper threw some of them food upon the
ground, in their sight, and opened the door of then coop. If they did
not come out; if they came out slowly; if they refused to feed, or ate
in a careless manner, the omen was considered as bad. On the contrary,
if they rushed out hastily and ate greedily, so that some of the food
fell from their mouths on the ground, this was considered as an omen
of the best import; it was called _tripudium solistinum_,
originally, _terripavium_, from _terra_, and _pavire_, to
strike.] The consul, highly pleased, and giving notice that the
auspices were excellent, and that they were to act under the direction
of the gods, displayed the signal for battle. Just as he was going out
to the field, he happened to receive intelligence from a deserter,
that twenty cohorts of Samnites, consisting of about four hundred
each, had marched towards Cominium. Lest his colleague should be
ignorant of this, he instantly despatched a messenger to him, and then
ordered the troops to advance with speed, having already assigned to
each division of the army its proper post, and appointed general
officers to command them. The command of the right wing he gave to
Lucius Volumnius, that of the left to Lucius Scipio, that of the
cavalry to the other lieutenants-general, Caius Caedicius and Caius
Trebonius. He ordered Spurius Nautius to take off the panniers from
the mules, and to lead them round quickly, together with his auxiliary
cohorts, to a rising ground in view; and there to show himself during
the heat of the engagement, and to raise as much dust as possible.
While the general was employed in making these dispositions, a dispute
arose among the keepers of the chickens, about the auspices of the
day, which was overheard by some Roman horsemen, who, deeming it a
matter not to be slighted, informed Spurius Papirius, the consul's
nephew, that there was a doubt about the auspices. The youth, born in
an age when that sort of learning which inculcates contempt of the
gods was yet unknown, examined into the affair, that he might not
carry an uncertain report to the consul; and then acquainted him with
it. His answer was, "I very much applaud your conduct and zeal.
However, the person who officiates in taking the auspices, if he makes
a false report, draws on his own head the evil portended; but to the
Roman people and their army, the favourable omen reported to me is an
excellent auspice." He then commanded the centurions to place the
keepers of the chickens in the front of the line. The Samnites
likewise brought forward their standards; their main body followed,
armed and decorated in such a manner, that the enemy afforded a
magnificent show. Before the shout was raised, or the battle begun,
the auspex, wounded by a random cast of a javelin, fell before the
standards; which being told to the consul, he said, "The gods are
present in the battle; the guilty has met his punishment." While the
consul uttered these words, a crow, in front of him, cawed with a
clear voice; at which augury, the consul being rejoiced, and
affirming, that never had the gods interposed in a more striking
manner in human affairs, ordered the charge to be sounded and the
shout to be raised.
41. A furious conflict now ensued, but with very unequal spirit [in
the combatants]. Anger, hope, and ardour for conquest, hurried on the
Romans to battle, thirsting for their enemy's blood; while the
Samnites, for the most part reluctantly, as if compelled by necessity
and religious dread, rather stood on their defence, than made an
attack. Nor would they, familiarized as they were to defeats, through
a course of so many years, have withstood the first shout and shock of
the Romans, had not another fear, operating still more powerfully in
their breasts, restrained them from flying. For they had before their
eyes the whole scene exhibited at the secret sacrifice, the armed
priests, the promiscuous carnage of men and cattle, the altars
besmeared with the blood of victims and of their murdered countrymen,
the dreadful curses, and the direful form of imprecation, drawn up for
calling down perdition on their family and race. Prevented by these
shackles from running away, they stood, more afraid of then countrymen
than of the enemy. The Romans pushed on both the wings, and in the
centre, and made great havoc among them, stupified as they were,
through their fears of the gods and of men. A faint resistance is now
made, as by men whom fear alone prevented from running away. The
slaughter had now almost reached to their standards, when, on one
side, appeared a cloud of dust, as if raised by the marching of a
numerous army: it was Spurius Nautius, (some say Octavius Metius,)
commander of the auxiliary cohorts: for these raised a greater
quantity of dust than was proportioned to the number of men, the
servants of the camp, mounted on the mules, trailing boughs of trees,
full of leaves, along the ground. Through the light thus obscured,
arms and standards were seen in front; behind, a higher and denser
cloud of dust presented the appearance of horsemen bringing up the
rear. This effectually deceived, not only the Samnites, but the Romans
themselves: and the consul confirmed the mistake, by calling out among
the foremost battalions, so that his voice reached also the enemy,
that "Cominium was taken, and that his victorious colleague was
approaching," bidding his men "now make haste to complete the defeat
of the enemy, before the glory should fall to the share of the other
army." This he said as he sat on horseback, and then ordered the
tribunes and centurions to open passages for the horse. He had given
previous directions to Trebonius and Caedicius, that, when they should
see him waving the point of his spear aloft, they should incite the
cavalry to charge the enemy with all possible violence. Every
particular, as previously concerted, was executed with the utmost
exactness. The passages were opened between the ranks, the cavalry
darted through, and, with the points of their spears presented, rushed
into the midst of the enemy's battalions, breaking down the ranks
wherever they charged. Voluminius and Scipio seconded the blow, and
taking advantage of the enemy's disorder, made a terrible slaughter.
Thus attacked, the cohorts, called _linteatae_, regardless of all
restraints from either gods or men, quitted their posts in confusion,
the sworn and the unsworn all fled alike, no longer dreading aught but
the enemies. The body of their infantry which survived the battle,
were driven into the camp at Aquilonia. The nobility and cavalry
directed their flight to Bovianum. The horse were pursued by the Roman
horse, the infantry by their infantry, while the wings proceeded by
different roads; the right, to the camp of the Samnites; the left to
the city. Volumnius succeeded first in gaining possession of the camp.
At the city, Scipio met a stouter resistance; not because the
conquered troops there had gained courage, but because walls were a
better defence against armed men than a rampart. From these they
repelled the enemy with stones. Scipio, considering that unless the
business were effected during their first panic, and before they could
recover their spirits, the attack of so strong a town would be very
tedious, asked his soldiers "if they could endure, without shame, that
the other wing should already have taken the camp, and that they,
after all their success, should be repulsed from the gates of the
city?" Then, all of them loudly declaring their determination to the
contrary, he himself advanced, the foremost, to the gate, with his
shield raised over his head: the rest, following under the like cover
of their shields conjoined, burst into the city, and dispersing the
Samnites who were near the gate, took possession of the walls, but
they ventured not to push forward into the interior of the city in
consequence of the smallness of their number.