The History of Rome; Books Nine to Twenty Six - Titus Livius
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32. The consuls divided the armies between them. The army which Marcus
Junius the dictator had commanded fell to the lot of Fabius. To that
of Sempronius fell the volunteer slaves, with twenty-five thousand of
the allies. To Marcus Valerius the praetor were assigned the legions
which had returned from Sicily. Marcus Claudius, proconsul, was sent
to that army which lay above Suessula for the protection of Nola. The
praetors set out for Sicily and Sardinia. The consuls issued a
proclamation, that as often as they summoned a senate, the senators
and those who had a right to give their opinion in the senate, should
assemble at the Capuan gate. The praetors who were charged with the
administration of justice, fixed their tribunals in the public fish
market; there they ordered sureties to be entered into, and here
justice was administered this year. Meanwhile news was brought to
Carthage, from which place Mago, Hannibal's brother, was on the point
of carrying over into Italy twelve thousand foot, fifteen hundred
horse, twenty elephants, and a thousand talents of silver, under a
convoy of sixty men of war, that the operations of the war had not
succeeded in Spain, and that almost all the people in that province
had gone over to the Romans. There were some who were for sending Mago
with that fleet and those forces into Spain, neglecting Italy, when an
unexpected prospect of regaining Sardinia broke upon them. They were
informed, that "the Roman army there was small, that Aulus Cornelius,
who had been praetor there, and was well acquainted with the province,
was quitting it, and that a new one was expected. Moreover, that the
minds of the Sardinians were now wearied with the long continuance of
rule; and that during the last year it had been exercised with
severity and rapacity. That the people were weighed down with heavy
taxes, and an oppressive contribution of corn: that there was nothing
wanting but a leader to whom they might revolt." This secret embassy
had been sent by the nobles, Hampsicora being the chief contriver of
the measure, who at that time was first by far in wealth and
influence. Disconcerted and elated almost at the same time by these
accounts, they sent Mago with his fleet and forces into Spain, and
selecting Hasdrubal as general for Sardinia, assigned to him about as
large a force as to Mago. At Rome, the consuls, after transacting what
was necessary to be done in the city now prepared themselves for the
war. Tiberius Sempronius appointed a day for his soldiers to assemble
at Sinuessa; and Quintus Fabius also, having first consulted the
senate, issued a proclamation, that all persons should convey corn
from the fields into fortified towns, before the calends of June next
ensuing: if any neglected to do so he would lay waste his lands, sell
his slaves by auction, and burn his farm-houses. Not even the
praetors, who were created for the purpose of administering justice,
were allowed an exemption from military employments. It was resolved
that Valerius the praetor should go into Apulia, to receive the army
from Terentius, and that, when the legions from Sicily had arrived, he
should employ them principally for the protection of that quarter.
That the army of Terentius should be sent into Sicily, with some one
of the lieutenant-generals. Twenty-five ships were given to Marcus
Valerius, to protect the sea-coast between Brundusium and Tarentum. An
equal number was given to Quintus Fulvius, the city praetor, to
protect the coasts in the neighbourhood of the city. To Caius
Terentius, the proconsul, it was given in charge to press soldiers in
the Picenian territory, and to protect that part of the country; and
Titus Otacilius Crassus, after he had dedicated the temple of Mens in
the Capitol, was invested with command, and sent into Sicily to take
the conduct of the fleet.
33. On this contest, between the two most powerful people in the
world, all kings and nations had fixed their attention. Among them
Philip, king of the Macedonians, regarded it with greater anxiety, in
proportion as he was nearer to Italy, and because he was separated
from it only by the Ionian Sea. When he first heard that Hannibal had
crossed the Alps, as he was rejoiced that a war had arisen between the
Romans and the Carthaginians, so while their strength was yet
undetermined, he felt doubtful which he should rather wish to be
victorious. But after the third battle had been fought and the third
victory had been on the side of the Carthaginians, he inclined to
fortune, and sent ambassadors to Hannibal. These, avoiding the
harbours of Brundusium and Tarentum, because they were occupied by
guards of Roman ships, landed at the temple of Juno Lacinia. Thence
passing through Apulia, on their way to Capua, they fell in with the
Roman troops stationed to protect the country, and were conveyed to
Marcus Valerius Laevinus, the praetor, who lay encamped in the
neighbourhood of Luceria. Here Xenophanes, who was at the head of the
embassy, fearlessly stated, that he was sent by King Philip to
conclude a treaty of alliance and friendship with the Roman people,
and that he had commissions to the Roman consuls, senate, and people.
The praetor, highly delighted with this new alliance with a
distinguished potentate, amidst the desertions of her old allies,
courteously entertained these enemies as guests, and furnished them
with persons to accompany them carefully to point out the roads, and
inform them what places, and what passes, the Romans or the enemy
occupied. Xenophanes passing through the Roman troops came into
Campania, whence, by the shortest way, he entered the camp of
Hannibal, and concluded a treaty of alliance and friendship with him
on the following terms: That "King Philip, with as large a fleet as he
could, (and it was thought he could make one of two hundred ships,)
should pass over into Italy, and lay waste the sea-coast, that he
should carry on the war by land and sea with all his might; when the
war was concluded, that all Italy, with the city of Rome itself,
should be the property of the Carthaginians and Hannibal, and that all
the booty should be given up to Hannibal. That when Italy was
completely subdued they should sail into Greece, and carry on war with
such nations as the king pleased. That the cities on the continent and
the islands which border on Macedonia, should belong to Philip, and
his dominions."
34. A treaty was concluded between the Carthaginian general and the
ambassadors, upon nearly these terms; and Gisgo, Bostar, and Mago were
sent as ambassadors with them to receive the ratification of the king
in person. They arrived at the same place, near the temple of Juno
Lacinia, where the vessel lay concealed in a creek. Setting out
thence, when they had got into the open sea, they were descried by the
Roman fleet, which was guarding the coasts of Calabria. Publius
Valerius Flaccus having sent fly-boats to pursue and bring back the
ship, the king's party at first attempted to fly; but afterwards,
finding that they were overmatched in swiftness, they delivered
themselves up to the Romans, and were brought to the commander of the
fleet. Upon being asked by him who they were, whence they came, and
whither they were going, Xenophanes, having once been pretty
successful, made up a fictitious story and said, "that he was sent
from Philip to the Romans; that he had succeeded in reaching Marcus
Valerius, to whom alone he had safe access; that he was unable to make
his way through Campania, which was beset with the troops of the
enemy." But afterwards the Carthaginian dress and manners excited
suspicions of the messengers of Hannibal, and when interrogated, their
speech betrayed them; then on their companions being removed to
separate places, and intimidated by threats, even a letter from
Hannibal to Philip was discovered, and the agreement made between the
king of the Macedonians and the Carthaginian. These points having been
ascertained, the best course appeared to be, to convey the prisoners
and their companions as soon as possible to the senate at Rome, or to
the consuls, wheresoever they might be; for this service five of the
fastest sailing vessels were selected, and Lucius Valerius Antias sent
in command of them, with orders to distribute the ambassadors through
all the ships separately, and take particular care that they should
hold no conversation or consultation with each other. About the same
time Aulus Cornelius Mammula, on his return from the province of
Sardinia, made a report of the state of affairs in the island; that
every body contemplated war and revolt; that Quintus Mucius who
succeeded him, being on his arrival affected by the unwholesomeness of
the air and water, had fallen into a disorder rather lingering than
dangerous, and would for a long time be incapable of sustaining the
violent exertion of the war; that the army there, though strong enough
for the protection of a province in a state of tranquillity, was,
nevertheless, not adequate to the maintenance of the war which seemed
to be about to break out. Upon which the fathers decreed, that Quintus
Fulvius Flaccus should enlist five thousand foot and four hundred
horse, and take care that the legion thus formed should be transported
as soon as possible into Sardinia, and send invested with command
whomsoever he thought fit to conduct the business of the war until
Mucius had recovered. For this service Titus Manlius Torquatus was
sent; he had been twice consul and censor, and had subdued the
Sardinians during his consulate. Nearly about the same time a fleet
sent from Carthage to Sardinia under the conduct of Hasdrubal,
surnamed the Bald, having suffered from a violent tempest, was driven
upon the Balearian islands, where a good deal of time was lost in
refitting the ships, which were hauled on shore, so much were they
damaged, not only in their rigging but also in their hulls.
35. As the war was carried on in Italy with less vigour since the
battle of Cannae, the strength of one party having been broken, and
the energy of the other relaxed, the Campanians of themselves made an
attempt to subjugate Cumae, at first by soliciting them to revolt from
the Romans, and when that plan did not succeed, they contrived an
artifice by which to entrap them. All the Campanians had a stated
sacrifice at Hamae. They informed the Cumans that the Campanian senate
would come there, and requested that the Cuman senate should also be
present to deliberate in concert, in order that both people might have
the same allies and the same enemies; they said that they would have
an armed force there for their protection, that there might be no
danger from the Romans or Carthaginians. The Cumans, although they
suspected treachery, made no objection, concluding that thus the
deception they meditated might be concealed. Meanwhile Tiberius
Sempronius, the Roman consul, having purified his army at Sinuessa,
where he had appointed a day for their meeting, crossed the Vulturnus,
and pitched his camp in the neighbourhood of Liternum. As his troops
were stationed here without any employment, he compelled them
frequently to go through their exercise, that the recruits, which
consisted principally of volunteer slaves, might accustom themselves
to follow the standards, and know their own centuries in battle While
thus engaged, the general was particularly anxious for concord, and
therefore enjoined the lieutenant-generals and the tribunes that "no
disunion should be engendered among the different orders, by casting
reproaches on any one on account of his former condition. That the
veteran soldier should be content be placed on an equal footing with
the tiro, the free-man with the volunteer slave; that all should
consider those men sufficiently respectable in point of character and
birth, to whom the Roman people had intrusted their arms and
standards; that the measures which circumstances made it necessary to
adopt, the same circumstances also made it necessary to support when
adopted." This was not more carefully prescribed by the generals than
observed by the soldiers; and in a short time the minds of all were
united in such perfect harmony, that the condition from which each
became a soldier was almost forgotten. While Gracchus was thus
employed, ambassadors from Cumas brought him information of the
embassy which had come to them from the Campanians, a few days before,
and the answer they had given them; that the festival would take place
in three days from that time; that not only the whole body of their
senate, but that the camp and the army of the Campanians would be
there. Gracchus having directed the Cumans to convey every thing out
of their fields into the town, and to remain within their walls,
marched himself to Cumae, on the day before that on which the
Campanians were to attend the sacrifice. Hamae was three miles distant
from his position. The Campanians had by this time assembled there in
great numbers according to the plan concerted; and not far off Marius
Alfius, Medixtuticus, which is the name of the chief magistrate of the
Campanians, lay encamped in a retired spot with fourteen thousand
armed men, considerably more occupied in making preparation for the
sacrifice and in concerting the stratagem to be executed during it,
than in fortifying his camp or any other military work. The sacrifice
at Hamae lasted for three days. It was a nocturnal rite, so arranged
as to be completed before midnight. Gracchus, thinking this the proper
time for executing his plot, placed guards at the gates to prevent any
one from carrying out intelligence of his intentions; and having
compelled his men to employ the time from the tenth hour in taking
refreshment and sleep, in order that they might be able to assemble on
a signal given as soon as it was dark. He ordered the standards to be
raised about the first watch, and marching in silence, reached Hamae
at midnight; where, finding the Campanian camp in a neglected state,
as might be expected during a festival, he assaulted it at every gate
at once; some he butchered while stretched on the ground asleep,
others as they were returning unarmed after finishing the sacrifice.
In the tumultuous action of this night more than two thousand men were
slain, together with the general himself, Marius Alfius, and
thirty-four military standards were captured.
36. Gracchus, having made himself master of the enemy's camp with the
loss of less than a hundred men, hastily returned to Cumae, fearful of
an attack from Hannibal, who lay encamped above Capua on Tifata; nor
did his provident anticipation of the future deceive him; for as soon
as intelligence was brought to Capua of this loss, Hannibal,
concluding that he should find at Hamae this army, which consisted for
the most part of recruits and slaves, extravagantly elated with its
success, despoiling the vanquished and collecting booty, marched by
Capua at a rapid pace, ordering those Campanians whom he met in their
flight to be conducted to Capua under an escort, and the wounded to be
conveyed in carriages. He found at Hamae the camp abandoned by the
enemy, where there was nothing to be seen but the traces of the recent
carnage, and the bodies of his allies strewed in every part. Some
advised him to lead his troops immediately thence to Cumae, and
assault the town. Though Hannibal desired, in no ordinary degree, to
get possession of Cumae at least, as a maritime town, since he could
not gain Neapolis; yet as his soldiers had brought out with them
nothing besides their arms on their hasty march, he retired to his
camp on Tifata. But, wearied with the entreaties of the Campanians, he
returned thence to Cumae the following day, with every thing requisite
for besieging the town; and having thoroughly wasted the lands of
Cumae, pitched, his camp a mile from the town, in which Gracchus had
stayed more because he was ashamed to abandon, in such an emergency,
allies who implored his protection and that of the Roman people, than
because he felt confidence in his army. Nor dared the other consul,
Fabius, who was encamped at Cales, lead his troops across the
Vulturnus, being employed at first in taking new auspices, and
afterwards with the prodigies which were reported one after another;
and while expiating these, the aruspices answered that they were not
easily atoned.
37. While these causes detained Fabius, Sempronius was besieged, and
now works were employed in the attack. Against a very large wooden
tower which was brought up to the town, the Roman consul raised up
another considerably higher from the wall itself; for he had made use
of the wall, which was pretty high of itself, as a platform, placing
strong piles as supports. From this the besieged at first defended
their walls and city, with stones, javelins, and other missiles; but
lastly, when they perceived the tower advanced into contact with the
wall they threw upon it a large quantity of fire, making use of
blazing fire-brands; and while the armed men were throwing themselves
down from the tower in great numbers, in consequence of the flames
thus occasioned, the troops sallying out of the town at two gates at
once, routed the enemy, and drove them back to their camp; so that the
Carthaginians that day were more like persons besieged than besiegers.
As many as one thousand three hundred of the Carthaginians were slain,
and fifty-nine made prisoners, having been unexpectedly overpowered,
while standing careless and unconcerned near the walls and on the
outposts, fearing any thing rather than a sally. Gracchus sounded a
retreat, and withdrew his men within the walls, before the enemy could
recover themselves from the effects of this sudden terror. The next
day Hannibal, supposing that the consul, elated with his success,
would engage him in a regular battle, drew up his troops in
battle-array between the camp and the city; but finding that not a
man was removed from the customary guard of the town, and that nothing
was hazarded upon rash hopes, he returned to Tifata without
accomplishing any thing. At the same time that Cumae was relieved from
siege, Tiberius Sempronius, surnamed Longus, fought successfully with
the Carthaginian general, Hanno, at Grumentum in Lucania. He slew
above two thousand of the enemy, losing two hundred and eighty of his
own men. He took as many as forty-one military standards. Hanno,
driven out of the Lucanian territory, drew back among the Bruttii.
Three towns belonging to the Hirpinians, which had revolted from the
Romans, were regained by force by the praetor, Marcus Valerius,
Vercellius and Sicilius, the authors of the revolt, were beheaded;
above a thousand prisoners sold by auction; and the rest of the booty
having been given up to the soldiery, the army was marched back to
Luceria.
38. While these things were taking place in Lucania and Hirpinia, the
five ships, which were conveying to Rome the captured ambassadors of
the Macedonians and Carthaginians, after passing round the whole coast
of Italy from the upper to the lower sea, were sailing by Cumae, when,
it not being known whether they belonged to enemies or allies,
Gracchus despatched some ships from his fleet to meet them. When it
was ascertained, in the course of their mutual inquiries that the
consul was at Cumae, the ships put in there, the captives were brought
before the consul, and their letters placed in his hands. The consul,
after he had read the letters of Philip and Hannibal, sent them all,
sealed up, to the senate by land, ordering that the ambassadors should
be conveyed thither by sea. The ambassadors and the letters arriving
at Rome nearly on the same day, and on examination the answers of the
ambassadors corresponding with the contents of the letters, at first
intense anxiety oppressed the fathers, on seeing what a formidable war
with Macedonia threatened them, when with difficulty bearing up
against the Punic war; yet so far were they from sinking under their
calamities, that they immediately began to consider how they might
divert the enemy from Italy, by commencing hostilities themselves.
After ordering the prisoners to be confined in chains, and selling
their attendants by public auction, they decreed, that twenty more
ships should be got ready, in addition to the twenty-five ships which
Publius Valerius Flaccus had been appointed to command. These being
provided and launched, and augmented by the five ships which had
conveyed the captive ambassadors to Rome, a fleet of fifty ships set
sail from Ostia to Tarentum. Publius Valerius was ordered to put on
board the soldiers of Varro, which Lucius Apustius,
lieutenant-general, commanded at Tarentum; and, with this fleet of
fifty ships, not only to protect the coast of Italy, but also to make
inquiry respecting the Macedonian war. If the plans of Philip
corresponded with his letter, and the discoveries made by his
ambassadors, he was directed to acquaint the praetor, Marcus Valerius,
with it, who, leaving Lucius Apustius, lieutenant-general, in command
of the army, and going to Tarentum to the fleet, was to cross over to
Macedonia with all speed, and endeavour to detain Philip in his own
dominions. The money which had been sent into Sicily to Appius
Claudius, to be repaid to Hiero, was assigned for the support of the
fleet and the maintenance of the Macedonian war. This money was
conveyed to Tarentum, by Lucius Apustius, lieutenant-general, and with
it Hiero sent two hundred thousand pecks of wheat, and a hundred
thousand of barley.
39. While the Romans were engaged in these preparations and
transactions, the captured ship, which formed one of those which had
been sent to Rome, made its escape on the voyage and returned to
Philip; from which source it became known that the ambassadors with
their letters had been made prisoners. Not knowing, therefore, what
had been agreed upon between Hannibal and his ambassadors, or what
proposals they were to have brought back to him, he sent another
embassy with the same instructions. The ambassadors sent to Hannibal
were Heraclitus, surnamed Scotinus, Crito of Beraea, and Sositheus of
Magnesia; these successfully took and brought back their commissions,
but the summer had passed before the king could take any step or make
any attempt. Such an influence had the capture of one vessel, together
with the ambassadors, in deferring a war which threatened the Romans.
Fabius crossed the Vulturnus, after having at length expiated the
prodigies, and both the consuls prosecuted the war in the
neighbourhood of Capua. Fabius regained by force the towns
Compulteria, Trebula, and Saticula, which had revolted to the
Carthaginians; and in them were captured the garrisons of Hannibal and
a great number of Campanians. At Nola, as had been the case the
preceding year, the senate sided with the Romans, the commons with
Hannibal; and deliberations were held clandestinely on the subject of
massacring the nobles and betraying the city; but to prevent their
succeeding in their designs, Fabius marched his army between Capua and
the camp of Hannibal on Tifata, and sat down in the Claudian camp
above Suessula, whence he sent Marcus Marcellus, the proconsul, with
those forces which he had under him, to Nola for its protection.
40. In Sardinia also the operations of the war, which had been
intermitted from the time that Quintus Mucius, the praetor, had been
seized with a serious illness, began to be conducted by Titus Manlius,
the praetor. Having hauled the ships of war on shore at Carale, and
armed his mariners, in order that he might prosecute the war by land,
and received the army from the praetor, he made up the number of
twenty-two thousand foot and twelve hundred horse. Setting out for the
territory of the enemy with these forces of foot and horse, he pitched
his camp not far from the camp of Hamsicora. It happened that
Hampsicora was then gone among the Sardinians, called Pelliti, in
order to arm their youth, whereby he might augment his forces. His
son, named Hiostus, had the command of the camp, who coming to an
engagement, with the presumption of youth, was routed and put to
flight. In that battle as many as three thousand of the Sardinians
were slain, and about eight hundred taken alive. The rest of the army
at first wandered in their flight through the fields and woods, but
afterwards all fled to a city named Cornus, the capital of that
district, whither there was a report that their general had fled; and
the war in Sardinia would have been brought to a termination by that
battle, had not the Carthaginian fleet under the command of Hasdrubal,
which had been driven by a storm upon the Balearian islands, come in
seasonably for inspiring a hope of renewing the war. Manlius, after
hearing of the arrival of the Punic fleet, returned to Carale, which
afforded Hampsicora an opportunity of forming a junction with the
Carthaginian. Hasdrubal, having landed his forces and sent back his
fleet to Carthage, set out under the guidance of Hampsicora, to lay
waste the lands of the allies of the Romans; and he would have
proceeded to Carale, had not Manlius, meeting him with his army,
restrained him from this wide-spread depredation. At first their camps
were pitched opposite to each other, at a small distance; afterwards
skirmishes and slight encounters took place with varying success;
lastly, they came down into the field and fought a regular pitched
battle for four hours. The Carthaginians caused the battle to continue
long doubtful, for the Sardinians were accustomed to yield easily; but
at last, when the Sardinians fell and fled on all sides around them,
the Carthaginians themselves were routed. But as they were turning
their backs, the Roman general, wheeling round that wing with which he
had driven back the Sardinians, intercepted them, after which it was
rather a carnage than a battle. Two thousand of the enemy, Sardinians
and Carthaginians together, were slain, about three thousand seven
hundred captured, with twenty-seven military standards.